Social structure is one of the fundamental concepts in sociology, referring to the totality of regular, patterned, and enduring relationships among individuals, groups, and institutions within a society. This structure emerges as a product of human life within society and forms the overall framework of social existence. The entirety of communication and relationships established by individuals to sustain a shared life constitutes the social structure. This concept aims to derive general laws by analyzing social events, developments, and relationships. The sociologist Émile Durkheim was the first to systematically employ the concept of social structure, developing the term to explain the changing social fabric of France after the Industrial Revolution on sociological and philosophical grounds. In examining this structure, Durkheim identified two distinct forms of solidarity—mechanical and organic—and consequently two different types of social structure.
Definition and Scope of Social Structure
Social structure can be thought of as the anatomy of a society; it defines the regular relationships among its various elements and ensures their balanced and harmonious functioning as a whole. This structure is a composite formed by the convergence of roles, statuses, authority, and responsibilities held by individuals who form groups. In sociological literature, a distinction is made between the concepts of “social structure” and “social structure.” Initially, the term “social structure” was used primarily to explain urbanization and the societies emerging from the Industrial Revolution. Over time, the concept of social structure acquired a broader meaning, coming to encompass not only industrial urban structures but all forms of social association that have existed from antiquity to the present. Analytically, social structure analyses focus primarily on macro-level institutional functions and relationships within the cognitive dimension, whereas social structure analyses tend to concentrate on micro-level behavioral dimensions. Nevertheless, social structure is not merely an external, large-scale phenomenon; it is also a product of individuals’ everyday material and symbolic practices and the networks of relationships in which they are embedded. The framework and supporting elements of structure are constituted by concrete human beings, their activities, and their interactions.
Sociological Theories and Social Structure
The concept of social structure has been addressed in various ways by different sociological theories. These approaches offer distinct perspectives on how the structure emerges, functions, and shapes society.
Structural Functionalism
This theory likens society to an organism, arguing that each component (institution) performs a specific function necessary for the survival of the whole. Herbert Spencer compared society to a living organism, emphasizing that its elements operate in an interconnected manner. Émile Durkheim, on the basis of the division of labor, identified two distinct types of social structure and solidarity. Radcliffe-Brown viewed social structure as the totality of interpersonal relationships, analyzing general patterns of interaction rather than individual differences.
Marxist and Conflict Theory
According to Karl Marx, social structure consists of an economic base that forms its foundation and a superstructure of political, legal, and cultural institutions built upon it. According to this theory, base-level elements such as relations of production and class conflict determine the superstructure and serve as the primary motors of social change.
Other Perspectives
Other sociologists have also developed various definitions of social structure. Morris Ginsberg defines structure as the unity of the fundamental groups and institutions that constitute society. Gerth and Mills evaluate structure around the concept of “institution.” According to İbrahim Yasa, social structure is the order, organization, and functioning of a community. Özer Ozankaya emphasizes that social structure must explain the main elements constituting society, their positions within the whole, and the regular relationships among them.
Characteristics of Social Structure
Although each society has a unique structure, social structures share certain general characteristics:
- Unity and Organization: Social structure is not a random collection of elements but a coherent, meaningful, and organized whole of interrelated components.
- Dynamism: Social structure is not static but dynamic. Like a rock slowly eroded by wind and rain, changes within social structure occur over long periods and may not be immediately apparent. However, institutions such as religion, economy, and family are constantly undergoing change and transformation.
- Interaction: There is continuous interaction among the elements constituting the structure. A change in one element (e.g., the economy) affects other elements (e.g., family structure). However, the rate of change varies among elements; institutions such as religion typically change more slowly.
- Continuity and Balance: Although no social structure exhibits absolute continuity, it maintains an internal structural balance and relative continuity, which ensures societal stability.
- Directionality: Social structure exhibits the general characteristics of society and guides the behavior, thoughts, and expectations of individuals within it.
- Societal Specificity: Since each society has its own unique history, culture, and geography, its social structure varies from one society to another.
Elements of Social Structure
Social structure consists of numerous interrelated elements. These elements can generally be examined under two main categories: physical (material) and cultural (spiritual) structure.
1. Physical (Material) Structure: This encompasses the external appearance, geographical settlement, and demographic characteristics of society. Distribution of population, settlement patterns (village, city), architectural forms, and the environment in which society lives are components of this structure.
2. Cultural (Spiritual) Structure: This includes the network of relationships among people and the abstract elements that regulate these relationships. Values, norms, beliefs, language, customs, and traditions form the foundation of this structure. The following sub-elements are also included within this structure:
- Social Status: This denotes an individual’s position within society, a group, or an organization. Statuses can be ascribed (e.g., gender, ethnic origin) or achieved (e.g., education, occupation). In the past, professional statuses such as doctor or district governor were prestigious; today, new statuses such as capital owners or social media influencers have gained prominence.
- Social Role: These are the expected patterns of behavior associated with a given status. Roles such as teacher or parent require individuals to exhibit different behaviors in different contexts.
- Social Group: These are associations of two or more individuals who come together around a common purpose or goal and interact with one another.
- Social Class: These are categories of individuals who share similar economic and cultural characteristics. Social classes form the basis of inequality and diverse lifestyles within society.
- Social Institution: These are organized, established, and enduring patterns of relationship designed to meet fundamental societal needs. Basic institutions such as family, religion, education, economy, law, and politics maintain societal order and hold diverse groups together.
- Culture and Values: These encompass all material and spiritual elements accumulated by a society throughout its historical development. Beliefs, moral understandings, value judgments, art, and law play decisive roles in the functioning of society and in shaping individual behavior.
Social Solidarity
Social solidarity refers to the mutual bonding, assistance, and support among individuals and groups within a society, based on shared feelings, thoughts, and interests. The strength and continuity of social structure largely depend on the power of the spirit of solidarity. Solidarity is a vital element for establishing peace and harmony in society, fostering a sense of trust, and reinforcing unity and togetherness.
Psychologically, solidarity relates to the social dimension of individual identity. Every individual possesses not only a unique “I” perception but also a “we” identity shared with others as a member of a community. This sense of belonging integrates the individual into the collective social ideals. Particularly in Turkish society, historical collective experiences such as wars, migrations, and natural disasters have strengthened the “we” identity and group behavior. Consequently, even during periods of social polarization and conflict, different segments of society tend to rapidly unite in times of major crises or disasters such as earthquakes, demonstrating extraordinary solidarity and sacrifice. This phenomenon illustrates that the “large-group regression” and chaos predicted by modern crisis psychology are not experienced identically across all societies.
Functions and Manifestations of Solidarity
Social mutual aid and solidarity serve many positive functions for society. Foremost among these is meeting the needs of vulnerable individuals and enabling their integration into social life. This strengthens bonds of love, respect, and trust within society. Individuals feel they are not alone and that a community exists to support them during difficult times, thereby increasing overall happiness and well-being.
Solidarity acquires an institutional character through civil society organizations. These organizations sustain the spirit of solidarity by organizing aid activities at national and international levels in areas such as education, health, and the environment, as well as during crises such as war and natural disasters. Religious-based assistance such as zakat and sadaqa, or mass aid delivered to disaster zones, are evidence of the strength of solidarity within society. Such actions contribute to social integration by reducing class differences. Although the meaning and sustainability of solidarity in modern, fragmented societies remain subjects of contemporary debate, the potential for unity in the face of a common threat or goal continues to be one of the most fundamental dynamics of social structure.
