STRATEGY

From the perspective of Historical, the essence of strategy’s thought has always been the concept of war, and thus throughout history, foundational works have been written that describe various wars and examine how wars should be conducted.

When examining the historical background of the forms, methods, and characteristics of strategy, it becomes evident that it originated to some extent in mythologies. In Scandinavian mythology, the prominent figure Odin embodies strategy through deception and trickery; in much of Greek mythological narrative, transformation, camouflage, and invisibility appear as strategic tools; in the Ergenekon Epic, the melting of glaciers to enable the Turks to exit the valley is framed as a natural consequence of overpopulation, leading societies to develop aggressive strategies; the Sumerian and Ancient Greek city-states, as settled organized polities, engaged in struggles for existence within their confines and adopted defensive strategies; the establishment of the Attic Delos Sea League, the first international organization formed by Athens against the Persian threat and possessing a military character, provides distinct examples in the history of strategy.

Although strategy is generally perceived as a military concept, it is in fact a distinct concept from the term “tactic” as used in a military context. The concept most closely aligned with strategy, which is expressed through planning, programming, scenario generation, and decision-making stages, is tactic. The most important distinction between these two concepts lies in scope and space. Strategy corresponds to long-term and broad-area plans and programs (being superordinate), while tactic refers to short-term planning within a limited area (being regional). If we consider that not all international relations develop within a context of conflict or war, actors develop strategies according to the nature and trajectory of each complex relationship. Indeed, in international relations, strategy denotes the entirety of methods employed in interactions among international political actors. Multinational corporations, states, international organization and other organizations all develop various strategies to realize their medium- and long-term interests, neutralize threats to their objectives, and achieve their goals.

The development of Strategic thought is generally examined in three periods: “Pre-18th Century Classical Period”, “Post-18th Century Modern Period”, and the “Nuclear Arms Race and Cold War Period”, during which Strategic Studies began to be recognized as an academic discipline.

The use of the concept of strategy has gradually become more widespread on national and international levels due to the increasing number of actors and the growing complexity of mutual relations. As individuals, families, societies, institutions, businesses, states, and state groups, as well as international organizations, face increasing challenges in preserving and sustaining their existence, these problems have diversified and become more complex, leading to a rise in threats. Just as the concept of security is examined alongside the concept of threat, the concept of strategy is also largely evaluated in relation to security. Strategy has come to encompass the methods and practices aimed at preserving, sustaining, and developing one’s own existence while neutralizing the existence of the adversary.

Various definitions of the concept of strategy have been proposed. The Turkish word “strateji”, derived from the French “stratégie”, has no direct Turkish equivalent. The General Turkish Dictionary of the Turkish Language Association defines strategy as “the science and art of coordinating political, economic, psychological, and military power to support the policies adopted by a nation or community in peace and war, known as sevkülceyş”.^【1】 

Since the 1970s, the term has been used in the social sciences to mean guiding, directing, sending, carrying, or driving.^【2】  The application of strategy across diverse fields, the proliferation of numerous types of strategy, and its historical roots that have continuously evolved have led to a multitude of definitions in the literature.

There are differing views on the etymological origin of the word “strategy”. One view traces it to the Latin “road”, meaning “line” or “bed” — “stratum”; a second derives it from “strategia”, meaning “the art or craft of the general”; a third traces it to the Ancient Greek “strategos”, meaning “general”. In addition, common opinion; the Greek word “stratos”, meaning “army”, combined with “ago”, meaning “to lead”, gives rise to the interpretation of “the art of the generals”.^【3】 

The concept of strategy has generally been defined as the use of military means for political ends.^【4】  However, over time, the appeal of the concept has led it to carve out space in many fields and, more importantly, to become a concept used for analyzing complex and high-level issues within those fields. In other words, it has evolved from the original military definition of “the art of the general” (strata geos) into a broader, more comprehensive concept extensively studied beyond the military domain. Just as the concept of security underwent expansion and deepening, so too has its foundational concept — strategy — shared the same fate, becoming increasingly deeper and broader. The concept of strategy has traditionally been analyzed within the framework of international relations theory, particularly the realist school, which emphasizes the anarchic nature of international relations and the proportional relationship between survival and available power.^【5】 

In addition to the general conceptual framework and definition outlined above, other definitions of strategy, which highlight different disciplinary perspectives, can be listed as follows:

• Liddell Hart: The art of distributing and employing military means to achieve political objectives.^【6】  For the purpose of strategy, as opposed to common definitions, is not merely the movement of forces but their effect.
• Murray and Grimsley: A continuous process of adaptation to changing conditions and circumstances in a world dominated by chance, uncertainty, and confusion.^【7】 
• Colin S. Gray: “The theory and practice of the use of organized power for political purposes”, serving as a bridge between military power and political objectives. Strategy is neither military power nor political objective in isolation; it is the use of force or the threat of force to achieve political outcomes.^【8】 
• Gregory Foster: Ultimately, the effective use of power.^【9】 
• Henry Eccles: The comprehensive management of power to control situations and regions for the attainment of objectives.^【10】  This definition is framed in terms of state functions.
• John Baylis and James Wirtz: A pragmatic and practical activity. “It is the guide to effectively achieving objectives through the effort of how to do them.”^{【11】 【12】} 
• General Karl Von Clausewitz: The use of battles for the purpose of war, the art of employing battles to win the war. The direction and management of war means the organization and deployment of battles.^【13】 
• Marshal Moltke: The art of finding a solution and the art of applying it under the most difficult conditions. Strategy is “the application in the operational field of the means at a commander’s disposal in a manner that ensures the attainment of the intended objective.”
• Napoleon Bonaparte: Strategy is the art of using time and space.
• Antoine Henri Jomini: Strategy is a war conducted on a map, encompassing the entire theater of operations.^【14】  He described it as “the activities between policy, which decides who to fight, and tactics, which determines how the actual conflict is conducted.”^【15】 

Although these definitions incorporate both objectives and means, in each case the emphasis is placed on the use of means-based power toward a political objective, while the diversity of objectives is relegated to the background. André Beufre, however, defined strategy as “the dialectic of two forces using power to solve a problem” or “the dialectic of two opposing wills”, emphasizing the dialectical nature of strategy both within itself and between two subjects. In short, both theorists and practitioners have revealed their own historical and sociological contexts not only in their analysis of the concept but also in their definitions.^【16】 

Initially rooted primarily in military practice, the importance of strategy has gradually been recognized in other fields as well. Today, strategy is used and developed by relevant institutions across nearly every domain as a means to achieve their objectives. Consequently, “strategy” has become a widely used concept across numerous fields for both military and civilian purposes.

Some authors define strategy very concisely as “the means used to achieve a specific goal” or “the establishment of balance between objectives and means”.^【17】  In USA Joint Publication 1-02 (JP 1-02), strategy is defined as “the science and art of coordinating and developing resources and forces in a compatible manner to achieve national and multinational objectives in the theater of war”. Similarly, strategy is also defined as the science and art of preparing, directing, and employing power to achieve a goal or objective.^【18】 

Some key characteristics of strategy are as follows.^【19】 

• Strategy is a multidimensional, complex, and dynamic process.
• Changes affecting one dimension of strategy also affect other dimensions.
• At its core, strategy possesses cultural characteristics as well as universal features in terms of its nature and function.
• Strategy is long-term in orientation.