Treaty of Moscow (1921)

The Treaty of Moscow, signed on 16 March 1921 between the Government of the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) acting on behalf of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, is an international agreement that defined Türkiye’s northeastern borders and resolved boundary issues in the Caucasus region. This treaty is regarded as one of the first international successes of the TBMM during the War of Independence. It also marked a diplomatic turning point in Türkiye-Soviet relations.

Historical Background of the Treaty

Following World War I, the political and military weakening of the Ottoman Empire created the conditions for the Allied Powers to begin occupations in Anatolia. The Armistice of Mudros, signed on 30 October 1918, led to the demobilization of the Ottoman army, the confiscation of its weapons, and the initiation of occupations in various regions. Under these circumstances, the Turkish people, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Paşa, launched the National Struggle beginning on 19 May 1919.

The opening of the Grand National Assembly of Türkiye on 23 April 1920 established the Ankara Government, which assumed the political and military leadership of the independence struggle, distinct from the Ottoman Government in Istanbul. At the same time, the Tsarist regime in Russia had been overthrown as a result of the October Revolution of 1917, and the foundations of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics were laid by the Bolsheviks. The new regime, led by Lenin, prioritized cooperation with anti-imperialist movements as a key objective of its foreign policy.

In this context, the Soviet Union viewed the Ankara Government, which was fighting imperialism in Anatolia, as a potential ally. Türkiye, on the other hand, urgently needed military and economic support, particularly against the Greek occupation backed by the West. As the needs of both sides complemented each other, diplomatic contacts accelerated rapidly. On 26 April 1920, Mustafa Kemal Paşa initiated direct diplomatic relations by sending a letter to Soviet leader Lenin, requesting the establishment of formal ties and seeking military assistance.

Process Leading to Diplomatic Negotiations

Following Mustafa Kemal Paşa’s letter, an exchange of correspondence and inter-delegation meetings began. In this framework, the first Turkish delegation, headed by Bekir Sami Bey on behalf of the TBMM, traveled to Moscow. However, the parties failed to reach an agreement on border issues. The Soviet side demanded the cession of certain eastern provinces to Armenia, a demand rejected by the Turkish delegation. The negotiations ended without result.

With changing political conditions, a new Turkish delegation was sent to Moscow in February 1921. This delegation included prominent figures such as Yusuf Kemal Tengirşek, Ali Fuat Cebesoy, and Rıza Nur. The negotiations commenced on 17 February 1921 and were conducted with the Soviet delegation led by Georgiy V. Chicherin, the Soviet Commissar for Foreign Affairs.

Content of the Negotiations

The main agenda items of the negotiations were as follows:

• Determination of definitive borders between Türkiye and the Soviet Union,
• The status of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia in the South Caucasus,
• The status of the Nakhchivan region,
• The status of Batum and its surroundings,
• Consideration of the ethnic and religious composition of the local population in the eastern borders,
• The framework for military and political cooperation.

Nakhchivan was regarded by the Turkish delegation as strategically and ethnically significant. Turkey proposed that the region’s status be regulated as an autonomous entity under Azerbaijani protection rather than under direct Turkish sovereignty. The Soviet side accepted this proposal, leading to an agreement that Nakhchivan would be an autonomous region affiliated with Azerbaijan and not transferable to any third state.

The issue of Batum was more complex. Türkiye insisted on guarantees for the rights of the Muslim population living in Batum. This demand was accepted by the Soviets, resulting in a provision ensuring cultural autonomy for Batum within Georgia.

Provisions of the Treaty

The Treaty of Moscow was signed on 16 March 1921. Its main provisions are as follows:

1. Determination of Borders: The border between Türkiye and the Soviet Union was defined along the Aras River, extending through the Arpaçay River, Lake Çıldır, and to the Black Sea. Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin were retained by Türkiye, while Batum was ceded to Georgia. The cultural rights of the Muslim population in the region were guaranteed.
2. Status of Nakhchivan: The Nakhchivan region was recognized as an autonomous territory affiliated with Azerbaijan and not transferable to any third state. This status was detailed in Article 3 of the treaty and in Supplementary Protocol 1(B).
3. Confirmation of the Treaty of Gyumri: The Treaty of Gyumri, signed between Türkiye and Armenia on 2 December 1920, was not recognized by the Soviet Union, but its territorial arrangements were confirmed by the Treaty of Moscow.
4. Political Cooperation: The treaty obligated Türkiye and the Soviet Union to refrain from interfering in each other’s internal affairs, to stand in solidarity against imperialism, and to maintain formal diplomatic relations.
5. Military Assistance: The Soviet Union pledged material and military aid to Türkiye, including the delivery of weapons and ammunition. This support played a crucial role in the Turkish War of Independence, particularly on the Western Front.

Consequences and Impacts

The Treaty of Moscow secured Türkiye’s eastern borders under international law and strengthened the diplomatic legitimacy of the TBMM. The treaty also provided a balanced solution that respected Türkiye’s historical ties with the Turkic and Muslim populations of the Caucasus. Following the treaty, Türkiye gained greater capacity to focus on the Western Front. The Treaty of Kars, signed on 13 October 1921, was subsequently ratified by Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia, all of which recognized the territorial arrangements established by the Treaty of Moscow, thereby finalizing the regional borders through mutual agreement. From the Soviet perspective, the Treaty of Moscow stabilized its southern borders and represented a significant step in its strategy to break the imperialist encirclement by establishing friendly relations with a major regional actor like Türkiye.