Turkish Weaving Culture

Turkish Textile Culture is a culture that developed over historical processes across a vast geographical area extending from Southern Siberia and Central Asia to the Caucasus, Anatolia and the Balkans. This culture emerged in response to the needs of a nomadic lifestyle and gradually transformed into artistic production forms associated with settled life. Turkish textile art encompasses works produced through various techniques such as felt, flat weaving (kilim, cicim, zili, sumak) and pile weaving (carpet), which possess both functional and symbolic qualities. The historical development process began with the earliest examples in Southern Siberia and Central Asia, became institutionalized during the Seljuk and Ottoman periods, and took shape during the Republican era around industrialization and cultural preservation policies.

Origins of Turkish Textile Culture

The foundations of Turkish textile culture lie in the steppe culture and the equestrian nomadic lifestyle of Southern Siberia and Central Asia. In this way of life, animal husbandry was the primary economic activity, and animal fibers such as wool and hair formed the main raw materials for producing shelter and utilitarian objects. The tents known as "yurt" (round house/white house), which were the most important shelter element of nomadic communities, were constructed using felt and woven materials. The tent culture enabled weaving to evolve not merely as an object but also as an architectural element.

Traditional Kyrgyz Yurt (Tent) (AA)

The mobility required by nomadic life necessitated that objects be lightweight, portable and durable. In this context, felts used for interior decoration and insulation of tents, floor coverings, storage sacks and animal harnesses constituted the earliest functional examples of textile art. Among Central Asian Turkish communities, felt is the oldest textile surface used prior to weaving.^【1】 From the Huns onward, tent coverings, floor coverings and garments found widespread use.

Main Types of Turkish Textiles

Turkish textile culture consists of major types that vary according to purpose and material structure, spanning from the practical needs of nomadic life to the aesthetic demands of settled existence. These types are fundamental material culture elements reflecting social status, economic structure and daily life practices.

Carpet

Considered one of the most important contributions of the Turks to world art history, the carpet served as a floor covering in both nomadic tents and palaces due to its thick structure providing thermal insulation and its aesthetic value. Historically described as "the luxury of the East"^【2】, the carpet was regarded as a symbol of wealth and status, used not only as a floor covering in mosques, palaces and homes but also hung on walls or employed as furniture coverings. Commercially, carpets have been among Anatolia’s most important export items for centuries and are categorized by use into prayer rugs, floor carpets, cushion covers and saddle covers.

Flat Weave Floor Coverings (Kilim, Cicim, Zili, Sumak)

Flat weave floor coverings, lighter, thinner and easier to fold and transport than carpets, constitute the textile group most suited to the mobility needs of nomadic life. In addition to being used as floor coverings, these textiles were produced in a wide variety of functional forms such as sacks (alaçuval, flour sack), bags, load covers (çul) and cradle covers for transporting and storing belongings during migration. In Anatolia, this group is generally known as "yaygı"; it is subdivided into kilim, cicim, zili (sili) and sumak according to the appearance of the woven surface and its purpose; coarser weaves such as "palas" are also included in this group.

Fabric and Cloth Weaves (Dastar and Bürümgük)

Fine weaves produced to meet clothing and household textile needs represent one aspect of Turkish textile art in terms of aesthetics and technique. These fabrics, typically woven from cotton, silk or linen threads, were used in making headscarves, undergarments, shirts and bed sheets. One important living example of this type is the fine weave known as "dastar," unique to the village of Yeşil Üzümlü in Fethiye, Muğla, adorned with original motifs.^【3】 These weaves, historically produced from a silk and cotton blend and now predominantly cotton-based, form part of the cultural identity of the local population.

Felt

Felt, which does not involve a warp-weft system but is one of the oldest and most traditional products of Turkish textile art, is the fundamental building material of the "tent" (yurt/round house) tradition brought from Central Asia to Anatolia. Due to its thermal and moisture insulation properties, felt met the shelter needs of nomads and was also used to make symbolic and functional garments such as the "kepenek" worn by shepherds, saddle covers for horses and the "sikke" worn by Mevlevi dervishes. Although its use narrowed with the transition to settled life, felt continues to exist as a tourist and artistic object.

Narrow Weaves (Çarpana and Kolan)

These weaves, produced as long narrow strips, serve as complementary elements of daily life through their carrying and fastening functions. Known as "çarpana" and "kolan," these strips are used in animal harnesses, securing loads (örken), carrying babies on the back, cradle bindings and as belts or sashes in traditional clothing. Particularly among Yörük and Turkmen communities, ornate and motif-decorated narrow weaves carry symbolic meanings in rituals such as weddings and funerals.

Wall Carpets and Wall Decorations

In Turkish textile culture, carpets and flat weaves were used not only as floor coverings but also on vertical surfaces for thermal insulation and aesthetic decoration. In early examples from Central Asia, carpets were used not only on the ground but also as wooden panel, saddle and wall coverings. In Anatolian village life, due to the weight of pile carpets, lighter flat weaves such as kilims and other flat weave types were preferred for vertical uses such as wall decorations, heavy curtains and door coverings. In the late Ottoman period, this tradition gained new dimensions in palace decoration; wall carpets with special dimensions and patterns were produced at the Hereke Factory for the decoration of Dolmabahçe and Yıldız Palaces, becoming integral to interior design. Exported Turkish carpets acquired prestige status in Western palaces and churches, where they were used not as floor coverings but as tablecloths and wall carpets.

The Pazırık Carpet and the Origins of Knotted Weaving

The oldest and most advanced known example of knotted carpet technique is the "Pazırık Carpet," discovered in the 1940s in the Pazırık Kurgan (3rd–5th century BCE) in the Altai Mountains (Southern Siberia). This artifact, approximately 2,300–2,500 years old, exhibits a structure similar to the double knot (symmetric/Turkish) technique used in modern hand-knotted carpets.^【4】 The equestrian figures, deer motifs and compositional arrangement on the Pazırık carpet reflect the iconographic characteristics of Central Asian steppe art. This find is a concrete archaeological indication that knotted carpet technique had reached a high level of technical proficiency during the Asiatic Hun period.

Transition to Anatolia and the Seljuk Period

The mass migration of Turks into Anatolia from the 11th century onward facilitated the transfer of textile techniques and motif languages originating in Central Asia and Southern Siberia to the west. After the 1071 Battle of Manzikert, the Turkmen tribes who settled in Anatolia continued their weaving looms and production practices in this region. During the Anatolian Seljuk period (13th century), centers such as Konya, Aksaray and Sivas emerged as major carpet production cities.

The traveler Marco Polo noted in his travelogue that the most beautiful carpets in the world were woven in Konya during the 13th century. Similarly, travelers such as Ibn Said and Ibn Battuta wrote about the quality of Turkmen carpets and their export to countries such as Egypt, Syria, Iraq and India.^【5】 Anatolian Seljuk carpets are generally characterized by geometric ground patterns, Kufic borders and large motifs.

The Ottoman Period and Interaction with the West

During the Ottoman Empire, textile art developed along two main lines: court-sponsored workshops and rural production. The 15th and 16th centuries are regarded as the classical period of Turkish carpet art. Carpets produced in centers such as Uşak, Bergama and Konya during this period began to be exported to European markets and were depicted in Western painting.^【6】

From the 19th century onward, under the influence of the Industrial Revolution and demands from Western merchants, workshops producing carpets for export with specified patterns and colors were established in Western Anatolia (particularly Uşak, Gördes, Kula) under the supervision of British and other European companies (e.g., Şark Halı Kumpanyası). This process led to partial changes in traditional motifs and natural dyeing techniques but significantly increased production volume. Additionally, to meet court needs and develop silk weaving, the Hereke Factory (Hereke Weaving Factory) was established in 1843, where the carpets produced gained a universally privileged status.

The Republican Period and Modernization

With the proclamation of the Republic of Türkiye, the preservation and development of traditional arts became state policy. Institutions such as Sümerbank supported carpet production in centers like Isparta and Hereke, providing local producers with yarn and pattern support. From the 1960s onward, industrialization and the spread of machine-made carpets affected hand-weaving; however, traditional production continued in rural areas and within cultural projects (e.g., the DOBAG Project)^【7】. Today, Turkish textile culture persists both as a historical heritage preserved in museum collections and as a living tradition with tourist and commercial value.

Raw Materials and Preparation Process

In Turkish textile culture, production is fundamentally based on animal husbandry, a natural consequence of the nomadic lifestyle. The most important factor determining the technical structure, durability and aesthetic quality of textiles is the type and processing method of the raw material. In traditional production, natural fibers such as wool, hair, silk and cotton are spun into yarn using regional methods and then dyed with natural dyes to prepare them for weaving.

Fiber Sources: Wool, Hair, Silk and Cotton

The most commonly used raw material in Anatolian weaving is sheep’s wool. Wool became the primary material for carpets, kilims and flat weaves due to its porous structure, thermal insulation properties, dye absorption capacity and flexibility. The quality of wool varies according to the season of shearing. Wool sheared in spring is called "yapağı," while wool sheared in autumn is called "güz yünü." Because animals graze and clean themselves naturally during summer, autumn wool has a brighter, cleaner and softer structure compared to spring wool. Therefore, autumn wool is preferred especially in the weft of fine kilims.

Goat hair is a fiber of high strength and was used in durable textiles such as tents (kara çadır/yurt), sacks and bags due to its moisture retention and pest-repelling properties. Artisans who spin yarn from goat hair are called "mazman," and those who weave with this yarn are called "mutaf."^【8】

Silk is a costly and labor-intensive material used primarily in palace carpets and specialized production centers such as Hereke. The fineness of silk fibers allows for an increased number of knots per square centimeter and enables intricate patterns to be woven. Cotton is generally used as the warp thread, especially in fine weaves such as Antep kilims or to provide structural strength in the base of Hereke carpets.

Shearing, Cleaning and Spinning

The textile preparation process begins with the shearing of animals. The raw wool or hair is washed in rivers to remove dirt and grease. After washing, the fibers are dried and then carded to align them parallel.

Spinning the fibers into yarn is traditionally performed using simple hand tools called "kirman" (needle) or "çıkrık." The twist direction and tightness of the yarn are adjusted according to its intended use (weft, warp or pile). Warp threads, which must withstand tension, are prepared with high twist and usually double-ply, while weft and pattern threads are left with looser twists to cover the surface. From the late 19th century onward, the establishment of yarn factories with industrialization initiated the transition from hand-spun to factory-made yarn.^【9】

Commonly Used Natural Dyes (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)

Natural Dyeing and Mordanting

In Turkish textile art, colors were derived from natural dyes obtained from plant, animal and mineral sources. Until the end of the 19th century, natural dyeing was the sole method of coloring, and it is the key factor enabling textiles to survive to the present day without fading.

Commonly Used Natural Dyes (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)

Mordanting: Metal salts known as "mordants" are used to chemically bind natural dyes to fibers and enhance resistance to washing and light. The most commonly used mordants in traditional Turkish dyeing are alum (potassium aluminum sulfate), copper sulfate (göztaşı), iron sulfate (karaboya) and cream of tartar (tartaric acid). The mordanting process is typically performed before dyeing by boiling the yarn in mordant solution (pre-mordanting).

From the second half of the 19th century, the introduction of synthetic dyes (aniline and alizarin) into the Ottoman market led to a decline in traditional dyeing techniques and noticeable changes in color quality. However, starting in the 1980s, projects such as DOBAG (Natural Dye Research and Development) have sought to revive traditional dyeing methods.

Weaving Tools and Looms

In Turkish textile culture, the production process is carried out using different technical equipment depending on the type of product (carpet, kilim, fabric), the raw material used and the social environment (settled or nomadic). The looms that provide the tension and shed-opening system for weaving, along with auxiliary tools for knotting, compacting and cutting, form the technical infrastructure of production.

Weaving Looms

Weaving looms are devices that maintain the tension of warp threads and allow the weft threads to pass through. In the Anatolian and Central Asian weaving tradition, two main types are used: vertical (ıstar) and horizontal (floor loom).^【10】

Weaving Looms (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)

Auxiliary Tools and Equipment

Various hand tools are used during weaving to compact knots, cut threads and smooth the surface.

• Kirkit: A comb-like striking tool, typically made of iron or hard wood, used to compact the knots or weft threads in carpets and flat weaves. In Turkmen weaving, the teeth of kirkits are made of iron and the handle of hard wood; sometimes rings are attached to produce sound.^【11】 The weight and tooth structure of the kirkit directly affect the quality and density of the weave.

• Mekik: A boat-shaped tool, usually made of wood, used to pass the weft or pattern thread through the warp (shed). Spools of thread are placed inside. It is a fundamental tool in fabric weaving such as dastar and in flat weaves requiring mass production such as Antep kilims.

• Knife and Scissors: In carpet weaving, special knives with hooked blades (keser) are used to cut excess thread after knots are tied. After weaving is completed, a special carpet shears (sındı) is used to shear the pile surface to achieve uniform height and smoothness.

• Other Tools: To prevent the width of the weave from narrowing and to maintain edge regularity, "çımbar" – metal or wooden stretchers with pointed ends – are used. Additionally, components such as the "gücü ağacı" (tension rod) and "varangelen" (warp separator) play important roles in the functioning of the loom.

Basic Weaving Techniques

Turkish textile culture is technically classified according to how threads intersect or interlock. These techniques are examined under three main categories based on whether pile (hav) is created, the number of weft and warp systems, and the mechanism of surface formation:

• Pile weaves (carpets),
• Flat weaves (kilim, cicim, zili, sumak)
• Non-woven surfaces (felt).

In addition, specialized narrow weaves (çarpana/kolan) constitute an important part of this technical classification according to their use.

Pile Weaves (Carpet) and Knot Technique Discussion

A carpet is a weave created by tying knots onto warp threads to form a pile (pile) surface, with weft threads passed and compacted after each row. The fundamental structural element of the carpet, the knot, is referred to by various names, and academic debates exist regarding these terminologies.

• Symmetric Knot (Turkish / Gördes / Double Knot): In this technique, the pile thread is wrapped around two warp threads, with both ends emerging upward from the center. Although commonly referred to in literature as the "Turkish knot" or "Gördes knot," it has been determined that the term "Gördes" is based on a mistaken association with the Gordian knot legend and does not correspond to geographic or historical reality.^【12】 Structurally exhibiting symmetry, it is more accurately defined in academic literature as the "symmetric knot" or "double knot" since it wraps two warp threads. This knot is used in the majority of Anatolian carpets and is also found in some regions of Iran and the Caucasus.

• Asymmetric Knot (Iranian / Sine / Single Knot): This knot is formed by wrapping the pile thread around one warp thread and passing it behind the adjacent one, leaving it free. Due to its non-symmetrical appearance, it is termed the "asymmetric knot." Although frequently referred to in literature as the "Iranian knot" or "Sine knot," it has been determined that the term "Sine" is inaccurate, as the Sine (Sanandaj) region predominantly uses the symmetric knot.^【13】 This knot technique allows for denser weaving and more detailed patterns.

Flat Weaves

Flat weaves, which create non-pile (hairless) surfaces, are subdivided into subgroups according to the intersection pattern of weft and warp systems and the technique of pattern formation:

• Kilim: A technique woven with two systems of threads – warp and weft – in which the weft completely covers the warp (weft-faced). Patterns are created by returning weft threads of different colors within their own motif boundaries. This process creates vertical gaps (ilik) between motifs, hence the term "ilikli dokuma" (slit weave).

• Cicim: A three-thread weave that uses, in addition to the ground warp and weft, a third "decoration weft" (pattern thread). The decoration thread skips over the warps (e.g., three over, three under) to create a raised surface appearance. Visually, it resembles needlework embroidery.

• Zili (Sili): A three-thread weave in which the decoration thread skips over the warps (typically three over, one under) to cover the entire surface, creating a wick-like appearance. Originating in Central Asia and the Caucasus, this technique is known as "sili" or "zili" and is commonly used in durable textiles such as çul and heybe.

• Sumak: A technique in which the decoration thread is wrapped around pairs of warp threads (wound), creating a herringbone or chain-like pattern. The weft thread, by wrapping around the pattern thread, forms a raised and firm surface structure. Variations include flat sumak and herringbone sumak.

Non-Weaved Textiles (Felt/Tepme)

Felt is a non-woven surface produced without warp or weft systems, by felting wool fibers together under pressure, moisture and heat (tepme). This technique, based on the principle of the surface scales of wool fibers opening and interlocking, was extensively used by Central Asian nomads for tent coverings (yurt), floor coverings and kepenek production. In Anatolia, this method, known as "tepme keçe," has a very ancient history, as evidenced by examples found in the Pazırık kurgans.

Narrow Weaves (Çarpana and Kolan)

Narrow weaves, typically produced in widths ranging from 0.5 cm to 50 cm, are strip-shaped textiles used for carrying loads, animal harnesses, belts and decoration.

• Çarpana Weaving: A technique using square or polygonal boards with perforated corners (cards) made of wood, leather or cardboard. Warp threads are passed through these perforations, and the cards are rotated around their axis to create the shed. This technique produces warp-faced and highly durable strips. This technique, dating back to 3000 BCE,^【14】 is still practiced by Yörük and Turkmen groups in Anatolia.

• Kolan Weaving: Although often confused with çarpana, it differs technically. In kolan weaving, tension rods or simple devices are used to create the shed. These warp-faced weaves are widely preferred for making örken (urgan/ip), securing loads and cradle bindings due to their durability.

Pattern Design and Surface Schemes

In Turkish textile culture, the surface composition of weaves is structured according to specific geometric and symbolic schemes. These schemes are shaped according to the region of production, the intended use (floor covering, prayer rug, cushion, etc.) and the weaver’s technical preferences. When examining Anatolian examples (e.g., Mut, Silifke, Yahyalı, Döşemealtı), six fundamental surface schemes emerge in terms of surface division and motif placement: hexagonal, central-bulb, baklava, mihrap, box and horizontal-banded schemes.^【15】

Hexagonal Surface Schemes

In this design, the weave surface is divided into equal-sized hexagonal forms. The lines connecting the hexagons are formed as single, double or triple rows of strips depending on the size of the weave. The interiors of the hexagons are filled with motifs from the regional repertoire in different colors and sizes. In Mut and Silifke zili weaves, motifs are typically arranged horizontally at a 45-degree angle, covering the entire surface.

Central-Bulb (Toplu) Surface Scheme

The central-bulb scheme is based on placing one or more primary motifs, called "top" or "göbek," at the center of the weave surface. Variations of this scheme include:

• Single and Multiple Bulbs: Depending on the size of the weave, a single large bulb may be placed at the center, or two or three bulbs may be arranged vertically.

• Toplu Halı: In examples called "toplu halı" in the Döşemealtı and Kocaaliler regions, two or three large cross-shaped motifs are arranged vertically on the ground.

• Corner Bulbs: Common in Yahyalı carpets, this design includes quarter-bulbs or corner fillings placed at the corners in addition to the central main bulb.

Baklava Surface Scheme

In this scheme, the weave surface is covered by a network formed by the repetition of baklava-shaped (rhombus) forms. The size of the baklava shapes and the thickness of their frames are adjusted according to the size of the weave. The interiors of the shapes are decorated with different colors and motifs following principles of contrast and rhythm. Examples of this scheme are found in Mut and Silifke zili weaves.

Mihrap Surface Scheme (Prayer Rug)

This is the fundamental scheme found in textiles used for prayer (seccade/namazlağı). The composition is created by stylizing the architectural element of the mihrab.

• Single and Double Mihrap: Typically contains a single arched form (mihrap). Camili (mihrap-patterned) designs are common in Döşemealtı carpets.
• Ladik Type: Compositions with stacked mihraps are also observed.
• Ground Design: The interior of the mihrab is sometimes left empty or filled with motifs such as lamps, ewers or the Tree of Life. Corner spaces (koltuk) are differentiated from the ground using different colors and motifs.

Box (Sandıklı) Surface Scheme

This is a characteristic surface division unique to Yahyalı carpets. The surface composition of Yahyalı carpets, from outside to inside, is arranged as: outer border, border, inner border, box, and inner ground (bulb). The box section consists of rectangular panels located between the inner border and the inner ground (bulb). In regional tradition, the use of this scheme is associated with social status; the "box" section is included in carpets woven by married or engaged women but omitted in those woven by unmarried or widowed women.

Horizontal-Banded Surface Scheme

This scheme divides the ground into horizontal (crosswise) bands. Known regionally as "taktalı," "tahtalı" or "çubuklu," this design allows the bands to be filled with motifs or left as simple color strips. This scheme is one of the most prominent examples of rhythm and repetition principles.

Motif Language, Symbolism and Rituals

In Turkish textile culture, motifs are not merely decorative elements; they constitute a silent language expressing the weaver’s inner world, beliefs, expectations and social status. This language is integrated with various rituals shaped by life cycle transitions and protective instincts from birth to death.

Textile Examples (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)

Rituals in the Weaving Process

The production process of carpets and flat weaves is surrounded by specific rituals from beginning to end, beyond being merely a technical act. These rituals aim to ensure prosperity, rapid completion and protection from the evil eye.

• Beginning Rituals: In Kayseri Bünyan, before beginning weaving, weavers anoint their hands with henna to prevent injury. This is also associated with the belief in "Fatma Ana." While starting, prayers are recited: "Make my hand swift like a bird, my ground firm like stone, give me this task as a three-day job," invoking speed like a bird and steadfastness like stone (to avoid leaving the work). Additionally, it is a practice to have a fast-running child bring the first knot to ensure rapid progress.

• Protective Practices: To prevent the evil eye from affecting the loom, objects such as vervain, evil eye beads, hawthorn branches or alum are hung in visible places on the loom.

• Completion (Cutting) Celebrations: When a carpet is completed and cut from the loom, a special celebration is held. For a dowry carpet, the bride’s mother-in-law cuts it while bringing sweets. It is a common tradition to place a gift on the carpet and offer blessings such as "May God grant you the price of this carpet."

Life Cycle Rituals: Birth, Wedding and Death

Textile products assume functional and symbolic roles during key transitions in an individual’s life.

• Birth and Childhood: In the Çanakkale Ayvacık region, textiles known as "urba yastığı" are produced for storing clean clothing and as pillows. Additionally, special "kolan" weaves made for carrying children on the back are an important textile type that facilitates mothers’ daily lives. In Turkmen carpets, religious motifs are found in carpets specifically woven for children.

• Wedding and Dowry: In Turkish culture, textiles are the most essential element of the dowry. The saying "no carpet, no kilim" expresses the absence of dowry. Young girls tie their own hair strands into the knots of the carpets they weave, hoping to remain permanently in their new home and find happiness. The "hair knot" motif symbolizes the desire for marriage. In Ayvacık Güzelköy, the tradition continues of tying special woven belts (kolan) around the bride’s waist instead of red ribbons, accompanied by prayers (salavat).

• Death and Funeral: Textiles play a decisive role in funeral rites. In Güzelköy, a special textile called "meydan kilimi" is used only during the transportation of the body to the cemetery and is returned after burial.^【16】 "Örken" kolan weaves are used to secure the body on this kilim. Additionally, laments sung at the loom upon hearing news of a death demonstrate the integration of oral culture with textile traditions.

Requests and Votive Practices

The act of weaving is also a means of making requests and fulfilling vows. In Bünyan, young girls believe that if a plant called "kader çiçeği" remains alive when hung on their loom, their wishes will be granted. Additionally, "votive carpets" (usually mihrap-patterned prayer rugs) are woven to be donated to mosques for the fulfillment of a wish; it is noted that during weaving, each knot is accompanied by a prayer, and the carpet functions as a rosary.

Regional Schools in Türkiye

In Türkiye, textile culture is divided into various regional schools exhibiting distinct characteristics based on geographical conditions, ethnic origins (Yörük, Turkmen tribes), local raw material sources and lifestyles. These schools developed along two main lines in terms of production organization: "court/workshop" and "rural/home" production, differing from each other in technique, material, color palette and motif repertoire.

Hereke Carpets (Kocaeli)

The most important school representing the "palace carpet" tradition of Turkish carpet art. Established in 1843, the Hereke Weaving Factory began production to meet the needs of Ottoman palaces for floor coverings, curtains and carpets. Hereke carpets hold a privileged position in world literature due to their material quality (silk and wool) and knot density.

The design character consists of compositions designed in palace nakkaşhane workshops, typically floral, medallion-based and with curvilinear branches. From the 19th century onward, Hereke carpets won awards at international fairs (Lyon, Chicago, Munich) and were used as diplomatic gifts in Western palaces (e.g., White House, Peace Palace, Huis Doorn Castle). During the Republican period, Hereke continued production under Sümerbank and became a world brand, especially in silk carpet production from the 1960s onward; its designs were copied in other Anatolian regions (Tokat, Kayseri, etc.) as "Hereke type."

Isparta Carpets

One of the most important commercial production centers of Turkish carpet art during the Republican period. This school developed particularly in the late 19th century under the organization of British companies (Şark Halı Kumpanyası) and was decisive in Türkiye’s carpet exports and domestic consumption from the 1950s to the 1980s.

Isparta carpets are typically woven with wool pile on a cotton warp using the "Gördes" (symmetric) knot technique. The design character consists of botanical ornaments, medallions and angular compositions shaped according to Western buyers’ tastes (Smyrna type). The first standardization and quality control efforts in Turkish carpet weaving were initiated in 1955 with Isparta as the center.

Manisa Demirci Carpets

One of the historically significant centers of Western Anatolian carpet weaving, Demirci, along with Gördes and Kula, is a region where the symmetric knot technique known in literature as "Gördes knot" is intensively used. During the 19th century, under the influence of British companies focused on export, the design and color characteristics were shaped according to the European market.

Demirci carpets are recognized as a school specialized in mosque carpet (saf seccade) production. They were featured among Turkish carpet representatives at international platforms such as the 1897 Stockholm Exhibition. During the Republican period, Demirci was one of the first centers to witness the transition from hand-weaving to mechanization.

Sarıkeçili Textiles (Karaman – Mersin Axis)

The Sarıkeçili Yörüks, one of the communities that maintained the nomadic lifestyle the longest, shaped their textile culture around animal husbandry and migration needs. In this school, concentrated in Karaman and its surroundings, a large portion of production consists of sack-type textiles used for transporting and protecting belongings during migration. Sarıkeçili textiles typically use goat hair and sheep wool obtained from their own herds. Hair material is preferred due to its ease of cleaning and thermal insulation properties.

Textiles are generally classified as "ala çuval" (for storing dowry and clothing), "un çuvalı" (for flour) and "kıl çuval" (for grain and household items). Technically, kilim, cicim and sumak techniques are common; ground weaves are typically made of hair, while motifs are made of root-dyed wool yarn. The motif repertoire prominently features geometric forms such as pıtrak, ram’s horn, abundance, hook, waterway and checkerboard.

Yahyalı Carpets (Kayseri)

This school, developed in the Yahyalı district and surrounding areas of Kayseri, is known for its unique surface scheme and color understanding. Yahyalı carpets differ from Bünyan carpets by being produced in smaller sizes (prayer rug type) and featuring geometric designs. The most distinctive feature of these carpets is the surface composition arranged from outside to inside as: outer border, border, inner border, box, and inner ground (bulb). The "box" section is a characteristic element unique to Yahyalı carpets; in regional tradition, it is included in carpets woven by married or engaged women but omitted in those woven by unmarried or widowed women. The color palette is dominated by dark and bright tones; navy blue, burgundy (apple red), dark brown and dark green are frequently used.

Döşemealtı Carpets (Antalya – Burdur)

This school, developed by the Karakoyunlu Yörüks in the Döşemealtı plateau and surrounding areas (Burdur-Kocaaliler, etc.) of northern Antalya, is known for its distinctive "Döşemealtı" carpets. These carpets are generally prayer rug size and feature a palette dominated by red, blue, burgundy, green and black colors.

Döşemealtı carpets are named according to their ground composition and motifs: halelli, toplu, akrepli, kocasulu and camili. In halelli carpets, the ground is filled with geometric motifs; in toplu carpets, large cross-shaped (top) motifs are arranged on the ground. In the regionally known akrepli carpets, the scorpion motif is rendered as a protective symbol (talisman) against external threats.

Ayvacık and Güzelköy Textiles (Çanakkale)

The Tahtacı Turkmen living in Güzelköy and surrounding areas of Ayvacık district, Çanakkale, have created a unique school through their distinctive narrow weaving techniques of "çarpana" and "kolan" weaving. In this region, kolan weaves are used for functional purposes such as carrying firewood, animal harnesses and child-carrying.

One of the most remarkable products of the Ayvacık school is the "Meydan Kilimi," used in funeral rites, and the special "Örken" kolan used to secure the corpse. Additionally, "urba yastığı," a lidded textile for storing clean clothing, is unique to the region. Motifs include local names such as "İstanbul street," "waterway" and "dişeme."

Fethiye/Yeşil Üzümlü Dastar (Muğla)

In the village of Yeşil Üzümlü, Fethiye, dastar fabrics woven on pedal looms called "düven" or "düzen" are the region’s most important textile product.^【17】 Dastar is a fine, transparent fabric woven with warp and weft threads and a third thread (yanış ipi) for creating patterns.

Traditionally woven from a cotton-silk blend, today dastars prefer flexible cotton yarn. Motifs are generally geometric and named after papaya, stick, leech, camel foot and snake.

Mut and Silifke Yaygılar (Mersin)

In the districts of Mut and Silifke in Mersin, flat weaves (kilim, cicim, zili) are common, produced in accordance with the Yörük lifestyle. Various surface schemes, including hexagonal, central-bulb, baklava and horizontal-banded, have been identified in these region’s textiles. The warps typically use hair, while the wefts use wool yarn. Regional motifs include yar yare küstü, ram’s horn, box and curved water.

Protection and Preservation Culture

In Turkish textile culture, the long-term preservation of produced items (carpets, kilims, fabrics, etc.) without deterioration and protection from harmful agents has become a cultural practice as important as the production process itself. These practices encompass both physical protection methods (trunks, bundles) and traditional measures developed against biological pests (moths, insects).

Methods of Protection Against Moths and Insects

The greatest enemy of textiles made from natural fibers (wool, silk, hair) is moth larvae and other insects. In traditional Turkish homes, non-chemical, natural protectants were used against these pests.

• Plant-Based Protectors: Fragrant plant and natural substances such as lavender flowers, bay leaves, walnut leaves, tobacco leaves, quince leaves, soap, naphthalene and black pepper were placed between textiles or in storage trunks to repel moths. Lavender and soap were particularly widely preferred due to their pleasant scent and insect-repelling properties.

• Airing and Sunning: Removing textiles periodically from trunks or storage and airing and sunning them is a fundamental method to prevent moth infestation. Sunlight and clean air reduce moisture, limiting the insects’ habitat.

• Washing and Cleaning: Since soiling attracts insects, care was taken to clean textiles before storage. In traditional cleaning, natural soaps and plant-based cleaners (e.g., çöven herb water) were used.

Trunk and Bundle Culture

The storage of valuable textiles (dowry items, special garments, embroidered coverings) is integrated into a tradition known as trunk culture. The trunk is not merely a storage tool but a symbolic object preserving the family’s memory and material wealth.

Sequential Order: Storage Rack, Trunk, Urba Pillow, Bundling (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)

• Trunks: Trunks, typically made from fragrant and durable woods such as walnut, cedar or cypress, protect contents from moisture and insects. Especially dowry trunks serve as the place where young girls store their most valuable textile items (dastar, embroidered coverings, pouches, bundles, etc.) produced or inherited during their marriage preparation. Sometimes the interior of trunks is lined with special fabrics to prevent direct contact between textiles and wood.

• Bundling: It is a common practice to wrap textiles in a clean cloth or a specially woven "bundle" before placing them in trunks. The bundle protects the textile from dust, light and friction while enabling orderly stacking. Bundles themselves are often elaborately woven textiles.

• Urba Pillow: The "urba yastığı" (clothing pillow), identified in the Ayvacık Güzelköy region, is a protective method developed for storing clean garments and valuable textiles. This bag-shaped textile, into which folded garments are placed, protects them from soiling and, due to its padded structure, can be used functionally as a pillow at night.

• Storage Rack System: Bedding, quilts and floor coverings not in daily use are systematically stacked in wooden cabinets (yüklük) located on a wall in the room, preserving their form. Embroidered curtains or kilims hung in front of the yüklük provide both a decorative appearance and protection from dust for the items inside.

Repair and Maintenance

Repairing valuable textiles damaged or worn over time is part of the preservation culture. Especially for public-use items such as mosque and foundation carpets and family heirloom carpets, maintenance and repair were attempted using traditional methods. Torn or detached sections were extended or patched using yarn and colors matching the original, thereby prolonging the textile’s life (e.g., patches seen in Sarıkeçili sacks). Additionally, the restoration of Turkish carpets used in the British Royal Palaces (Buckingham Palace) is currently carried out at the Aksaray Sultanhanı, demonstrating the international expertise of Turkish textile repair traditions.^【18】

Historical Influence and Contemporary Diplomacy

Turkish textile culture, throughout history, has transcended its role as merely a commercial commodity or utilitarian object, functioning as an instrument of diplomatic relations, a symbol of status and a central element of artistic interaction. Particularly in relations with the Western world, carpets and textiles were accepted as tangible manifestations of political and cultural diplomacy.

Place in Western Art

Turkish carpets began to be frequently depicted in European art from the 14th century onward, and these depictions have become important documents for dating carpets and determining their origins. Renaissance and Baroque painters rendered Turkish carpets in their paintings with detailed realism. These carpets are often named after the painters who depicted them in literature:

• Holbein Carpets: Carpets with geometric patterns and Kufic borders seen in the paintings of Hans Holbein.

• Lotto Carpets: Carpets depicted in Lorenzo Lotto’s works, typically featuring red arabesque motifs on a yellow ground.

• Memling Carpets: Carpets featuring octagonal rose motifs found in the paintings of Hans Memling.

Diplomatic Gifts and Palace Collections

Turkish carpets were among the most valuable gifts presented by Ottoman sultans and state officials to Western monarchs and diplomats.

• Gifting: In 1464, Fatih Sultan Mehmed gifted 100 carpets to King Ferdinand of Naples.^【19】 Similarly, in 1884, Sultan Abdülhamid II gifted carpets from the Yıldız Palace collection to American Senator Abram Hewitt to strengthen the Ottoman Empire’s reputation in the West.

• Palace Inventories: Of the 801 carpets in the inventory of King Henry VIII of England, 444 were Turkish carpets.^【20】 Turkish carpets were used in the throne rooms of centers such as Kensington Palace and Wavel Castle (Poland).

• Peace Palace (The Hague): The enormous carpets and curtains specially woven at the Hereke Factory for the Consul’s Hall of the Peace Palace, which houses the International Court of Justice in The Hague, Netherlands, are a significant example of late Ottoman diplomacy reflecting its cultural heritage.

Azerbaijan and Shared Cultural Heritage

Turkish textile culture exhibits strong ties with Azerbaijan and the Caucasus in terms of technique and terminology. Flat weave techniques such as zili (Sili) and sumak are produced in both regions using the same techniques and similar names (in Azerbaijan: Zili, Sumak or Şedde). Additionally, textile types such as palas and cecim exhibit similar technical and design features in both Anatolia and Azerbaijan (Karabakh school). This demonstrates that textile culture represents a shared Turkish cultural heritage transcending political boundaries.