This article was automatically translated from the original Turkish version.
Abjad is an ancient numeral system in which letters of the Arabic alphabet are assigned numerical values. Also known as “Jummal Numbers,” this system was widely used for centuries in the Islamic world, particularly in mathematics, astronomy, chronology, Sufism, literature, and architecture. The abjad system is not merely a mathematical coding method but also a metaphysical tradition that imbues letters with the potential to generate meaning, history, and prophecy.
The abjad system emerged as the Arabs developed their own numeral system based on their alphabet, drawing inspiration from the Greek, Coptic, and Hebrew alphabets. It is believed to have come into use toward the end of the 7th century CE. Each letter of the alphabet was assigned a specific numerical value, and calculations were performed using these values. This practice became known as “abjad calculation” or “jummal calculation.”
The abjad letters are grouped in sequence according to the following words:
Abjad (أبجد), Hawaz (ھوز), Ḥuṭṭī (حطي), Kalaman (كلمن), Saʿfaṣ (سعفص), Qarashat (قرشت), Thakhadh (ثخذ), Dhāgha (ضظغ)
In the western Islamic world (Maghreb), these words were also pronounced as Sa‘faz, Karaset, Zağaş. It is noted that this ordering has Phoenician origins and is not rooted in Arabic linguistic structure.
The numerical equivalents of the letters in the abjad system are as follows:
Jummal Numerical Values (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)
When writing numbers using letters, the values are arranged from largest to smallest, and the dots beneath the letters are typically omitted. For example, the number 33 is written as لج and the number 11 is written as یا (without the dot beneath the alif).
Several sub-systems of abjad calculation have been developed. The four main types are:
In these systems, the values of letters can be recalculated using different methods. For instance, one method involves summing the numerical values of the letters in the Arabic name of a letter. For example, the letter “alif” (الف) has a value of 1 + 30 + 80 = 111.
The association of the abjad system with the muqatta’at (disjointed letters) in the Qur’an—such as Alif-Lam-Mim, Alif-Lam-Ra, and others—is referenced in the interpretations of numerous exegetes. Figures such as Abu’l-‘Aliya and Rabi‘ ibn Anas claimed these letters indicated the lifespans of nations and historical events. Classical exegetes including Tabari, Maturidi, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, and al-Wahidi acknowledged this possibility but did not adopt a definitive stance. The fundamental basis for these interpretive differences lies in the epistemological approach to the abjad system: some scholars viewed it as an intrusion into knowledge of the unseen, while esoteric interpretive circles regarded it as a key to unlocking divine mysteries.
The most well-known application of the abjad system is assigning dates to significant events. Verses or words whose numerical value corresponds to a specific year were created for this purpose. This practice is called “istihlāc.” Dates of conquests, fires, births, and deaths were determined using this method. For example, the year of a fire might be represented by the word “nār” (fire), while the year of a birth might be indicated by the word “najm” (star). Such examples are frequently found in classical poetry and endowment deeds. In fields such as divan literature and endowment documentation, the tradition of encoding the year of an event through meaningful phrases is common. These dates can be correlated with the Gregorian, Hijri, or Rumi calendars and employ various formulas:
In Islamic manuscript culture and archival practices, the abjad system functioned not only as a numerical tool but also as an aesthetic, classificatory, and semantic element. Especially in classical Islamic societies, it was frequently employed for organizing knowledge, ensuring document security, and symbolic representation.
In classical texts, the abjad system was widely used as a section divider, ordering mechanism, and numerical code. In manuscripts and biographical compendia, the birth and death dates of individuals were commonly expressed through words or verses calculated using abjad values. This practice was not merely a method of recording dates but also an literary and symbolic tradition that linked the numerical value to the character or essence of the person. For instance, the year of a poet’s death might be encoded in a word reflecting their literary persona, with the abjad value of that word directly corresponding to the year. This enabled the transmission of historical data in poetic form and endowed texts with aesthetic depth.
In Ottoman archival documents, the abjad system was used both for ordering and for confidentiality. Instead of using numerical digits, documents were organized using Arabic letters such as alif, ba, jim, etc. This method became systematic within the framework of official state correspondence rules, creating a document management system consistent with both Islamic and administrative traditions.
Abjad was also used to encode specific information in endowment deeds—such as the founder’s name, founding year, and allocated budget—in cryptic form. This usage served both symbolic and functional purposes: preserving information, enhancing its semantic depth, and attributing sanctity to the text.
The role of the abjad system in archival documents extends beyond merely presenting historical data. It functions as a meaning-constructing practice. By uniting letters and numbers, this system enables information to be transmitted simultaneously on visible and hidden levels. Records created through the abjad system, due to their symbolic value, often invite interpretations that go beyond their literal meaning.
In this regard, abjad demonstrates that archives were not merely technical repositories of information but were designed as interpretive texts. Documents employing the abjad system offer valuable insights into the intellectual framework, conceptions of sanctity, and aesthetic sensibilities of their time.
In Islamic astronomy, abjad values were employed in calculations related to calendar systems, star positions, celestial phenomena, astronomical tables, and time measurement. Symbols representing zero were also used in cases of numerical deficiency; these are thought to have been inspired by ancient Greek practices. Within Islamic sciences, particularly in fields such as ‘ilm al-hay’a (astronomy) and ‘ilm al-aflak (science of the spheres), it was accepted that letters and numbers represented cosmic structures. Letters were not merely linguistic elements but were regarded as entities symbolizing the movements of celestial bodies.
One of the most important classical sources on this subject is al-Biruni’s treatise al-Tafhim li-Awail Sina‘at al-Tanjim. In this work, the numerical values of letters were used as tools in the study of trigonometric tables, astrological charts, and calendar calculations. Similarly, Ibn Khaldun, in his Muqaddimah, discussed the abjad system, evaluating it not only as a means of encoding historical events but also as a reference for periodizing human history. In this context, the abjad system became a kind of interpretive key to the numerical representation of cosmic time. Sources indicate that Ibn Khaldun emphasized that the abjad system was not merely a computational technique but held broader epistemological significance.
Abjad Calculation (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)
Abjad letters were used in place of musical notes, forming a system known as “abjad notation.” In the 13th to 15th centuries, the music theorist Safi al-Din al-Urmawi systematized this abjad notation in his treatise Kitab al-Adwar to explain maqam structures. This notation system represents melodic intervals rather than fixed pitches. In abjad notation:
Unlike modern notation, this system focuses on the sequence of intervals and was used for theoretical explanations due to its flexibility.
Abjad Notation (Generated by Artificial Intelligence)
Although there is no direct evidence of the abjad system being applied in architectural design, it is known that traditions based on letter-number relationships were present in Islamic architecture, particularly in principles of proportion, modularity, and symbolic arrangement. Especially during the Ottoman period and the era of Mimar Sinan, symbolic elements are believed to have been considered in the proportional relationships between buildings and the placement of architectural components.
Some studies indicate that while the abjad system may not have been directly used in architectural planning, it served as a regulatory element in endowment records and building inscriptions. In this context, dates determined through abjad calculation were inscribed on stone tablets via the practice of “chronological coding,” conveying information such as the construction year, founder, or function of a structure. For example, a poem or word on a mosque inscription might simultaneously denote the building’s name and its construction year, with the year encoded through abjad calculation.
The abjad system was also widely used among the general populace. Examples include naming children according to the numerical value of their birth year. One such example is the naming of Mehmet Akif Ersoy by his father as “Ragıf,” based on the abjad value of his birth year.
It was also employed in folk beliefs involving talismans, amulets, vefks, zodiac signs, and treasure hunting. Particularly within esoteric and Hurufi traditions, the metaphysical meanings of letters and numbers were emphasized. In Sufism, abjad values played a significant role in determining the number of dhikr repetitions, identifying the Night of Power (Laylat al-Qadr), and in esoteric interpretations. In this context, the abjad system was used as a key to unlocking the esoteric dimensions of sacred texts.
The abjad system is a multifaceted and influential numeral system that has left its mark across numerous domains of Islamic cultural history—from mathematics to Sufism, literature to architecture, and astronomy to music. The numerical power of letters, fused with meaning, elevates this system beyond mere calculation, infusing it with metaphysical and aesthetic dimensions. Today, the abjad system continues to serve as a meaningful reference in historical research, literary analysis, and cultural studies.
History and Origins
Jummal Numerical Values
Abjad Systems
Applications
Qur’anic Exegesis and the Muqatta’at Letters
Chronological Coding
Books and Archives
Use in Books
Use in Archival Documents
Record Culture and Semantic Depth
Astronomy and Science
Musical Theory
Architecture
Folk Culture and Sufism