Glaciers in Türkiye

Türkiye, due to its geographic location and the presence of numerous mountains, hosts a variety of glacier types. Current glaciers and traces of Late Quaternary glaciation are concentrated especially in the eastern regions of the country, but are also observed in other areas. These glaciers constitute an important resource for scientific research and form part of the nation’s natural heritage.

Turkey's glaciers are generally located in the more mountainous eastern regions, between 37°N and 41°N latitudes. Current glaciers can be broadly categorized into three main regions:

1. Southeastern Taurus Mountains: This region hosts Turkey’s largest and best-preserved valley glaciers. It is particularly known for significant glaciers such as the Cilo Mountain (Uludoruk), İzbırak, and Erinç glaciers. The glaciers of the Southeastern Taurus Mountains account for approximately 25% of the country’s total glacial area. The permanent snow line in this region currently lies at around 3400–3600 meters.

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2. Eastern Black Sea Mountains: These mountains, extending along the Black Sea coast, host numerous glaciers, particularly on the Kaçkar Mountains. Glaciers of varying sizes are also found on Verçenik, Bulut, Altıparmak, Karadağ, and Karagöl mountains. Glaciers in this region cover approximately 25% of Turkey’s total glacial area. The permanent snow line here descends to 3100–3200 meters on the northern slopes due to the influence of moist air masses, while it reaches 3500–3550 meters on the southern slopes.

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3. High Mountains and Extinct Volcanoes of the Anatolian Plateau: Glaciers are also present on extinct volcanoes such as Mount Ararat, Mount Erciyes, and Mount Süphan, as well as on the Mercan (Munzur) and Esence mountains. The largest glacier in Turkey, the Mount Ararat ice cap, belongs to this group.

Different types of glaciers have been identified in Turkey. According to inventories conducted between 2002 and 2009, the country has a total of 1 ice cap, 50 mountain glaciers (some sources further classify these as 17 mountain glaciers and 33 cirque glaciers/glacierets), and 55 rock glaciers. Including rock glaciers, these glacial features cover a total area of approximately 20.6 km².

1. Ice Cap: Located on the summit of Mount Ararat, this is Turkey’s largest glacier, covering an area of approximately 5.59 km² according to 2008 data.

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2. Mountain/Valley Glaciers: These are especially common in the Southeastern Taurus Mountains. The İzbırak Glacier, at 2.1 km in length, is Turkey’s longest valley glacier. The Erinç Glacier is approximately 1.5 km long. The Kaçkar I Glacier in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains has a length of 0.93 km.

3. Rock Glaciers: These are significant landforms in Turkey’s periglacial environments. They cover a total area of approximately 8.02 km² and are concentrated mainly in the Eastern Black Sea Mountains and the Mercan Mountains. Fourteen rock glaciers have also been identified in the Kavuşşahap Mountains.

The inventory of current glaciers in Turkey was compiled using ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) satellite imagery from 2002 to 2009 and data obtained from the Google Earth platform. These studies were conducted under the international GLIMS (Global Land Ice Measurements from Space) project. Remote sensing techniques such as false-color composite imagery, threshold band ratios, and normalized difference indices were employed to distinguish between snow and ice areas. Google Earth imagery was also used to identify smaller glaciers.

Glacier research in Turkey historically began in the first half of the 19th century through travel accounts by European explorers. The first scientific studies were carried out in the early 20th century by researchers such as Maunsell and Penther. Later, scientists including Krenek, Bobek, and Erinç conducted modern investigations between the 1930s and 1950s. Subsequent researchers such as Kurter, Sungur, and Çiner have also contributed to the study of Turkish glaciers.

Glaciers in Turkey have shown significant retreat in parallel with global warming over the past century. Historical measurements of glacier retreat rates are consistent with the impacts of global warming observed in Turkey.

1. Southeastern Taurus and Eastern Black Sea Mountains: The most rapid retreat has been observed in glaciers of these regions. Average retreat rates have been determined as 11.5–14.7 m/year (for Erinç and Orta Uludoruk glaciers between 1948 and 2009) and 9.3–14.6 m/year (for Kaçkar I, II, and III glaciers between 1948 and 2004). At the Geverok Glacier, a retreat rate of approximately 14 meters per year was calculated between 1937 and 2009.

2. Glaciers on Volcanic Mountains: The glacier on Mount Erciyes retreated at an average rate of 4.2 meters per year between 1902 and 2008. The Hızır Glacier on Mount Süphan retreated at an average rate of approximately 7 meters per year between 1950 and 2008.

3. Mount Ararat Ice Cap: This large ice mass has also significantly diminished. Between 1976 and 2008, approximately 30% of the total glacial area was lost, equivalent to an average annual area loss of 0.06 km².

The existence of current glaciers in Turkey is regarded as a legacy of colder climatic conditions in the past. Present-day climatic conditions, particularly summer temperatures, are not conducive to the formation of new glaciers. One of the most important factors for glaciation is that monthly average temperatures remain below 0°C throughout the summer season. Analyses indicate that this condition is generally not met in Turkey’s mountainous areas.

According to the Köppen-Geiger climate classification, the polar frost (EF) climate type, which supports glacier formation, does not occur within Turkey’s borders. Instead, the milder polar tundra (ET) climate type is found at high elevations. This suggests that most of the existing glaciers persist as relics of past climatic conditions and/or as a result of local physiographic factors such as north-facing, shaded cirques. No conclusive evidence has been found to indicate ongoing glaciation; on the contrary, the observed trend is continued retreat of existing glaciers.

In conclusion, the glaciers of Türkiye serve as important indicators of climate change and scientific research. The preservation of these existing glaciers and the enhancement of public awareness regarding this natural heritage are of critical importance.