This article was automatically translated from the original Turkish version.
Along with the wave of nationalism, Russia, through its Pan-Slavist policy, began inciting all Slavic communities against Ottoman State. Russia pursued an intensive campaign to spread Pan-Slavism by engaging in material and cultural activities among the Bulgarians. By the final quarter of the century, Bulgarians had placed their hopes for independence in the Tsar. Many Bulgarians received scholarships to study in Russia and came under the influence of Pan-Slavism. The administration of Ottoman proved inadequate in opposing Russian activities and essentially became a spectator. Although it attempted to take preventive measures by reforming the education system, it acted too late.
By 1862, Bulgarian nationalism entered a new phase. From this year onward, Bulgarian revolutionaries began using small bands as instruments to advance the potential Bulgarian uprising. Small bands organized in Wallachia and Serbia carried out armed actions on Ottoman territory. However, these actions remained confined to banditry and did not transcend into organized revolution.
It was nearly impossible for a nationalist movement to exist independently of an independent church. Religious structures and churches formed the foundation of nation-states. At the time, the Orthodox Christian community in Russia's Pan-Slavism policy could not be conceived as separate from the Greek-dominated Patriarchate. Beginning in the first half of the nineteenth century, Bulgarians, like Greeks which had gained its independence fifty years earlier, sought to establish their own national church. Greek hegemony within Orthodox churches deeply disturbed B is not possible to translate "Bulgarları" in isolation, as it is the accusative form of the Turkish word "Bulgarlar" (Bulgarians), meaning "the Bulgarians" as a direct object. In English, this would typically be rendered as **"the Bulgarians"** depending on context.However, since no full sentence or context is provided, the most accurate standalone translation is:**the Bulgarians**. The Russian diplomat Ignatiev, stationed in Istanbul, also campaigned for an independent Bulgarian church. When negotiations between Greeks and Bulgarians failed in 1866, Bulgarian churches expelled their Greek bishops. The Ottoman state, unwilling to provoke rebellion in the region, adopted a cautious stance. In 1870, a decree was issued establishing the independent Bulgarian Church, known as the Bulgarian Exarchate. Thus, Bulgarian nationalism achieved a major success within the ecclesiastical sphere.
In the early 1870s, Bulgarian bandits and revolutionaries attempted several uprisings but failed. Initially, Bulgarians believed they could achieve success through independent action. However, revolutionary groups organized in Bucharest, Romania, remained weak against the Ottomans due to their inability to secure support from Russia and other great powers. Leaders such as Levski and Obšti were captured and executed. As a result, they realized they needed external support.
During this period, the 1876 Bulgarian Uprising emerged as a critical turning point. The brutal suppression of the uprising mobilized Russia, and events such as the so-called “Batak Massacre” were exaggerated to generate widespread outrage in Europe. This provided Russia with a pretext for direct intervention against the Ottoman Empire. Although Russia claimed it entered the war to protect Christian rights, according to Kemal Karpat, Russia’s decision to go to war was influenced by its concern that the reforms planned by Mithat Pasha and its surroundings might resolve the underlying problems, thereby undermining Russia’s justification for intervention.
The Ottoman state’s victories against Serbia and Montenegro following the uprising constituted another factor leading to Ottoman-Russian War. Russia mobilized to instigate war by inciting Bulgarians, Serbs, and Montenegrins against the Ottoman Empire. However, after Ottoman military successes, the parties turned to diplomatic efforts. For this purpose, the Constantinople Conference was held in Istanbul on 23 December 1876. The proposals presented to the Ottoman state appeared unacceptable. Territory would be ceded to Serbia and Montenegro; Bulgaria would be divided into two provinces with Bulgarian recognized as the official language and with various administrative and military reforms implemented. The Ottoman state rejected these proposals.
Following the Ottoman rejection, Russia accelerated its war preparations and secured the neutrality of Austria to create favorable conditions for war against the Ottomans. In London, where the relevant powers convened, the London Protocol was signed to define the future policy. However, the Ottoman state also rejected this protocol. Ultimately, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 24 April 1877, citing the need to uphold European law and the alleged oppression of Bulgarians. This war is known as War of 1893 and took place on two fronts: Danube River and Eastern Anatolia.
The Ottoman army, under the command of Serdar-ı Ekrem Abdülkerim Paşa on the Danube front, established its first defensive line along the left bank of the Danube River and its second defensive line along the Balkan Mountains. The Ottoman army established its headquarters in Shumen. At the start of the war, Russians entered Romanian territory and brought the principality to its side. The Russians advanced in two separate columns, moving toward Dobruja and Bucharest, crossing the Danube between Rusçuk and Niğbolu, capturing Ziştovi on 27 June and Tırnova on 1 July. Despite Ottoman resistance, Russian forces advanced as far as Yeşilköy in certain areas such as Plevne. Both sides signed Treaty of Ayastefanos, ending war. As a result of the agreement, "Greater Bulgaria" was to be established. However, due to European intervention, the agreement was annulled, and on 13 July 1878, Treaty of Berlin was signed with fewer losses for the Ottomans. Under this agreement, “Greater Bulgaria” was divided into three parts: Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia Vilayet, and the directly Ottoman-administered Vilayet-i Selase (Macedonia).
Pan-Slavists conducted international campaigns to emphasize that the Muslim population in the region was a minority. A dense Muslim population posed a threat to the Bulgarian nation-state. The Russians initially planned to expel The Turks but later adopted a strategy of mass extermination. This was due to the fact that nearly half the population in the region was Turkish-Muslim. The main objective of the Russians was to kill civilians and terrorize peasants into fleeing their homes. The Don-Volga Cossacks were particularly experienced in implementing this strategy. Rumors that Cossacks, notorious for their savage massacres, were approaching villages were enough to drive Muslims to abandon their homeland. The scale of brutality employed by the Russians and Bulgarians during this war was horrific. Correspondents from newspapers such as The Manchester Guardian, Kölnische Zeitung, Journal des Débats, Morning Post, and Pester Lloyd issued a joint statement on 20 July reporting that elderly people, women, and children in Razgrad and Shumen had been subjected to inhumane treatment by Russian soldiers. The greatest hardships faced by refugees were cold and hunger, causing many to die en route. With approximately one million Turkish-Muslims forced to migrate, Russia succeeded substantially in its goal of establishing the Bulgarian nation-state.
Independence of the Bulgarian Church
Bulgarian Uprisings and the Outbreak of the 93 War
Ottoman-Russian War and the Constantinople Conference
Policies Targeting the Turkish-Muslim Population