Kapıkulu Cavalry

The Kapıkulu cavalry formed part of the Ottoman standing army. Until the mid-17th century, the Kapıkulu cavalry enjoyed greater prestige than the Janissaries and consisted of six distinct corps that emerged at various times. The sipâhîs and silahdârs, known as the “Upper Divisions,” were the most prestigious corps. It is believed that the silahdârs originated during the reign of Murad I. Although traditions suggest the sipâhî corps was also established during this period, the reign of Mehmed the Conqueror is generally accepted as its formal inception.

The four divisions known as the Bölükât-ı erba‘a—ulûfeciyân-ı yemîn, ulûfeciyân-ı yesâr, gurebâ-i yemîn, and gurebâ-i yesâr—appear in sources from the mid-15th century. By this time, the Kapıkulu cavalry had acquired the structure of six corps. Each of the Kapıkulu cavalry corps had its own banner, and they were sometimes referred to by the color of their banner. The sipâhîs’ banner was red, the silahdârs’ yellow, and the ulûfeciyân-ı yemîn’s banner was green in color. Although the other three corps were sometimes called “alaca bayrak” (multicolored banner) from time onward, it is highly probable that the ulûfeciyân-ı yesâr’s banner was red-white, the gurebâ-i yemîn’s was white, and the gurebâ-i yesâr’s was green-white.^【1】 To distinguish them from the timarli sipâhîs, the terms “altı bölük halkı,” “sipâh,” “ebnâ-i sipâhîyân,” “sipâh kulları,” and “dergâh-ı âlî sipâhîleri” were preferred.

Recruitment Sources

The primary sources of recruits for the Kapıkulu cavalry were the İbrahim Pasha Palace, Galata Palace, and Edirne Palace, where boys received preparatory training. These recruits, selected through the devşirme system at regular intervals, were enrolled in the Kapıkulu cavalry corps—a process recorded in sources as “bölüğe çıkma.” Devşirmes who could not continue their education in the Enderun but served in various palace roles could also be assigned to the corps. Topkapı Palace, especially during periods of sultan succession known as “büyük çıkma,” supplied a large number of soldiers to the Kapıkulu cavalry.

Some Janissaries, cebecis, artillerymen, and top drivers were also incorporated into the Kapıkulu cavalry corps. Unlike the Janissaries, the Kapıkulu cavalry were permitted to marry. Their children were called “veledeş.” Particularly those who left the palace or transferred from Janissary service to the Kapıkulu cavalry were granted the right to renounce their ulûfe in favor of their children (see Veledeş Article).

In the early period, sons of high-ranking officials and certain commanders were allowed to become sipâhîs, and two individuals from the kazasker’s retinue were permitted to be supply for this purpose. With the decline of the devşirme system, men from many different social classes began entering the Kapıkulu cavalry. Sources contain sharp criticisms from the mid-16th century onward regarding former slaves from Egypt, Damascus, and Baghdad who joined the cavalry. Some names began circulating in the 18th century in the hands of individuals lacking official military status.

Residences and Ulûfe Payments

The Kapıkulu cavalry had no barracks. Those not assigned to official duties resided in the rural areas around Istanbul and in cities such as Edirne, Bursa, and other close locations due to the need to maintain their horses. From the early 17th century onward, they began settling throughout nearly all regions of the empire. The amount of ulûfe varied according to the corps to which they belonged and their demonstrated usefulness. Initially, payments were made every three months (kıst). However, as the state’s fiscal balance deteriorated over time, alternative payment methods were adopted.

From the second half of the 16th century, those residing in the provinces began leaving their tezkire documents with local officials to collect their ulûfe. Some received their ulûfe annually from a specific revenue office (salary). Those employed in various duties collected their ulûfe from the treasury of the administrative unit to which they were assigned. Some soldiers were granted treasury tezkires under the designation “a-hızâne,” enabling them to collect their ulûfe from designated revenue sources.

Initially, payments were made at Topkapı Palace, but by the 1650s, the system shifted to the sergi method. The ulûfe of sipâhîs and silahdârs was paid in the presence of the grand vizier, while that of the ulûfeciyân and gurebâ corps was paid at the residences of their respective aghas. Those who received ulûfe through the sergi system were called “sergili,” while those residing in the provinces and collecting their ulûfe through other means were termed “taşralı.”

Promotion, Retirement, and Punishments

Promotions within the Kapıkulu cavalry followed their internal hierarchy. Promotions within the ulûfeciyân and gurebâ divisions typically involved advancement to a higher corps or transition to a timar with a higher income. Sipâhîs and silahdârs could be promoted to the ranks of çavuş, müteferrika, or occasionally çaşnigir based on their service.

Individuals could retire (mütekaid) with a portion of their ulûfe due to disability, old age, or other reasons. Discipline was one of the key concerns of the ocak. A crime committed by a soldier could result in punishment proportionate to its severity. Punishments were generally administered through officers; for serious offenses, the soldier’s name was erased from the register, severing ties with the corps. Such individuals were commonly referred to as “çalık.”

Officers

Each of the six Kapıkulu cavalry corps had its own agha, and the hierarchy among these corps was determined by the status of their aghas. Appointments and promotions generally followed this hierarchy. In addition to a daily stipend of 120 akçe, an annual allowance of 16,000 to 17,000 akçes was granted to the aghas. Besides the aghas, each division had a kethüdâ, a başçavuş, and a varying number of çavuşs.

Officials such as the veznedâr and beytülmâl emini performed various administrative duties for the Kapıkulu cavalry. The süvari mukabelecisi, accompanied by his halife and şâkirds, maintained the soldiers’ records and planned ulûfe disbursements. As the Kapıkulu cavalry began settling in the provinces from the second half of the 16th century, special officers known as “Kethüdâyeri” were appointed to certain administrative units (see Kethüdâyeri entry).

Numbers and Divisions

The timar system began to deteriorate toward the end of the 16th century. Due to increasing military demands, the number of Kapıkulu soldiers rose rapidly. In 1484, while there were 7,841 Janissaries, there were 4,306 Kapıkulu cavalrymen (1,401 sipâhîs, 1,446 silahdârs, 384 ulûfeciyân-ı yemîn, 353 ulûfeciyân-ı yesâr, 356 gurebâ-i yemîn, and 366 gurebâ-i yesâr). At this time, 63.39 percent of the military payroll was allocated to the Kapıkulu cavalry. The number of sipâhîs rose from 1,059 in 1512 to 1,952 in 1530 and reached 7,805 in the 1670s; silahdârs increased from 1,338 in 1512 to 1,582 in 1530 and reached 7,683; ulûfeciyân-ı yemîn rose from 484 in 1512 to 577 in 1530 and reached 2,055; ulûfeciyân-ı yesâr increased from 479 in 1512 to 434 in 1530 and reached 1,423; gurebâ-i yemîn rose from 259 in 1512 to 179 in 1530 and reached 928; and gurebâ-i yesâr increased from 277 in 1512 to 181 in 1530 and reached 973 in the 1670s. In later periods, the total number exceeded 20,000.

Each Kapıkulu cavalry corps was subdivided into smaller units, each led by a bölükbaşı. The most prestigious corps, the sipâhîs, were initially divided into 226 units, but the number later increased to 300. Although the silahdârs, the second corps, occasionally reached 300 units, they were generally divided into 260. The ulûfeciyân-ı yemîn, with fewer members than the sipâhîs and silahdârs, were divided into 105 units; ulûfeciyân-ı yesâr into 100; gurebâ-i yemîn into 77; and gurebâ-i yesâr into 52. This subdivision served practical purposes: facilitating ulûfe distribution, enabling rapid access to records in case of disputes, and maintaining discipline through the bölükbaşıs.

Duties

Hezarfen Hüseyin Efendi, in the 1670s, provided a general overview of the duties of the Kapıkulu cavalry. According to him, during campaigns, the sipâhîs, ulûfeciyân-ı yemîn, and gurebâ-i yemîn marched on the right side of the sultan’s tent, while the silahdârs, ulûfeciyân-ı yesâr, and gurebâ-i yesâr marched on the left. Their tents were positioned adjacent to the sultan’s tent according to their assigned flank. The sipâhîs and silahdârs took turns guarding the sultan’s quarters. The ulûfeciyân-ı yemîn and ulûfeciyân-ı yesâr, known as the “Middle Divisions,” guarded the treasury.

The seven subaşıs assigned to the right and left wings were selected from these two groups. Six individuals chosen from these two corps were responsible for selling worn-out tents. The gurebâ-i yemîn and gurebâ-i yesâr, known as the “Lower Divisions,” were assigned relatively more arduous tasks.^【2】 The Kapıkulu cavalry bore all their own expenses. When on campaign, they carried their weapons along with tents, bedding, and cooking pots. Extra horses were kept to transport these items. Sipâhîs, silahdârs, ulûfeciyân-ı yemîn, and ulûfeciyân-ı yesâr soldiers each had personal servants in their retinues who handled tasks such as caring for spare horses, setting up tents at halting places, and preparing meals.

When preparing for campaign, the silahdâr corps was responsible for clearing and widening roads, repairing existing bridges, constructing causeways across marshy areas, and building earthen mounds along the route. Initially, a silahdâr kethüda was assigned to oversee this task with a contingent of silahdâr soldiers. Later, this responsibility was transferred to the silahdâr çavuşs.

In battle, the Kapıkulu cavalry, stationed to the right and left of the sultan or, in his absence, the grand vizier (regiment bağlama), served as a reserve force. Two or three lines were formed; the first line would launch three assaults, and if these failed, subsequent lines would advance in sequence. They held the flanks of the Sancak-ı şerîf and protected it.

In Siege wars, the primary duty of the Kapıkulu cavalry was to protect the Janissaries who had entered the trenches (kafadarlık). They also actively participated in capturing enemy soldiers (dil alma) and gathering intelligence. When necessary, they assisted other troops by filling trenches, transporting on artillery pieces, carrying soil kohl, tree components, and performing tasks such as metris pickaxe.

Busbecq provided information on the weaponry of the Kapıkulu cavalry in the 1550s. These soldiers carried a query node called otağa on their heads, with a bow slung on one side of their horse and a quiver on the other. Armed with a green-colored light lance in their right hand and a shield on their left, they used their lance, curved sword, or bow depending on the situation. A gürz suspended from the saddle was also among their weapons, used as needed.

The Kapıkulu cavalry did not throw their lance. When required to use it, they held the lance with its tip pointing backward, bracing it against their knee. When preparing to fight with the lance, they placed their bow in its case and hung it from the shield on their left arm.^【3】 Attempts to combine the advantages of firearms with cavalry mobility, as seen in Europe, also occurred in Ottoman territories. During the reign of Kanuni, grand vizier Rüstem Pasha trained 200 Kapıkulu cavalrymen in firearms, but this initiative failed to gain traction.

The Kapıkulu cavalry were also employed in various financial roles. During the reign of Fatih, they began collecting revenues on behalf of the state in mint contracts (havalecilik). Their association with financial duties, rather than military service, began from the Kanuni period. When on campaign, 300 elderly members of the Kapıkulu cavalry were registered as mülâzım. These men performed various services in Istanbul while the sultan was away. Upon the campaign’s return, they were appointed as mutevelli of waqfs and entrusted with collecting certain taxes such as cizye.

By the end of the 16th century, the Kapıkulu cavalry began participating in nearly every financial activity. Serving as emin in tax-farming contracts, they received a fixed share. In 1612, it was decided that 300 mülâzım would be registered for the first six months of the year and another 300 for the second six months during peacetime, with financial duties assigned to them. By the mid-17th century, in exchange for depositing their ulûfe with the treasury (hazîne-mande), they began assuming iltizam contracts. This reduced the treasury’s ulûfe burden, and the portion previously allocated to tax farmers was now shared between the soldiers and the state.

While the Janissaries attempted to mitigate the burden of rising inflation through artisanal work and trade, the Kapıkulu cavalry supplemented their income through financial activities. Due to delayed ulûfe payments and the preservation of their privileges, they frequently staged bloody revolts. After several failed attempts during the reign of IV. Murad, their privileges were revoked and their prestige diminished. In 1826, during the abolition of the Janissary corps, the Kapıkulu cavalry was also disbanded.