Manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz)

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a tuberous plant from the Euphorbiaceae family, rich in starch. Its native homeland is the western-central regions of South America, and it is believed to have been domesticated approximately 10,000 years ago. This plant, which thrives in tropical and subtropical regions, serves as a staple food for millions of people worldwide.

Today, cassava is primarily cultivated in Africa, Asia and Latin America, and is regarded as a “food security crop” due to its high carbohydrate content. In Türkiye, it has recently been the subject of research as an energy crop and food alternative.

Cassava (Pixabay)

Morphological Characteristics

Cassava is a perennial, semi-woody shrub that can grow 1–3 metres tall. Its palmate leaves are divided into five to nine lobes. The tubers are cylindrical, covered externally by a brown skin and internally white or cream-coloured. The dry matter content of the roots ranges between 30–40 percent, approximately 90 percent of which consists of starch and sugars. The plant is highly rich in starch, with the energy value of dried roots reaching 3500–4000 kcal/kg. Cassava tubers are used both as human food and as industrial raw material. Starch granules are particularly valuable in the food, textile, paper and biofuel industries.

Ecological Characteristics and Cultivation Conditions

Cassava exhibits high adaptability to tropical climatic conditions.

• Optimum temperature: 25–30 °C
• Soil temperature: Ideal for growth between 18–30 °C
• pH range: 5.5–6.5
• Soil type: Well-drained, loose, loamy or sandy-loamy soils

Due to its drought tolerance, cassava can grow in areas with low rainfall and nutrient-poor soils. It is cultivated between 30° North and 30° South latitudes.

Adaptability under Türkiye Conditions

Türkiye’s climatic conditions show limited suitability, particularly in the Mediterranean, Aegean and Southeastern Anatolia Regions. In these areas, summer temperatures reaching 25–35 °C, high annual sunshine duration, and relatively light soil structure enable trial production. However, since cassava is sensitive to frost, outdoor cultivation is risky in regions where winter temperatures fall below 10 °C. Therefore, controlled cultivation in greenhouses or microclimate zones is recommended.

Propagation and Planting

Cassava is propagated vegetatively using stem cuttings.

• Cutting length: 20–30 cm
• Diameter: 1.5–4 cm
• Number of buds: 2–3 viable buds
• Planting time: March–May (after the danger of frost has passed)
• Planting spacing: 90 × 120 cm or 100 × 100 cm
• Irrigation: Requires low water; regular irrigation is recommended during early growth stages

The harvest period varies between 8–12 months. Since tubers are stored underground, they can remain in the soil for extended periods when needed.

Nutritional Value and Uses

Cassava tubers contain high levels of starch. One hundred grams of fresh cassava root provides approximately 160–170 kcal of energy. It also contains small amounts of calcium, phosphorus, iron and vitamin C.

• Food industry: Used to produce flour, starch and tapioca
• Animal husbandry: Leaves are used as feed
• Industry: Used as raw material for biofuel, bioplastics, paper and textiles

Toxicity and Food Safety

Cassava varieties are divided into two types: sweet and bitter. The difference lies in the levels of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the roots.

• Sweet varieties: Low HCN content (at ppm levels)
• Bitter varieties: High HCN content; must not be consumed without processing

To reduce toxicity, processes such as boiling, soaking and drying must be applied. In Türkiye, cyanide concentration limits for imported or processed cassava products are regulated under the Turkish Food Codex.

Cultural and Economic Importance

Cassava is cultivated in over 100 countries worldwide and has an annual production volume of approximately 300 million tons. According to 2015 data, it was grown on 22.7 million hectares. In Africa, it is a staple food, while in Asian countries it serves primarily as an industrial raw material. In Türkiye, it is being evaluated as an alternative energy crop within the framework of agricultural innovation and climate-resilient product research, with potential contributions to rural development programs.

The “Cassava Stick,” a staple food in Africa, is commonly used in traditional dishes in countries such as Cameroon, Nigeria and Ghana (

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a strategically important plant both agriculturally and industrially due to its high starch content, climatic flexibility, low maintenance requirements and versatile applications. Although commercial production has not yet been established in Türkiye, it is regarded as a resilient, energy-efficient and sustainable alternative in the face of climate change and drought. With appropriate policy support and adaptation programs, it is emerging as a new crop with potential to enhance Türkiye’s agricultural diversity.

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