Saddam Hussein (1937–2006) was the president of Iraq and a leading figure in the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party who implemented policies known as "Saddamism." During his rule, he nationalized Iraq’s oil resources, launched extensive development initiatives, and conducted harsh military operations against Kurdish uprisings and Shia opposition.^【1】 He was viewed as a polarizing figure: by supporters and some scholars as a determined Arab leader resisting imperialism, and by opponents as a tyrant.^【2】

Early Life and Education

Saddam Hussein was born near Tikrit into a Sunni Arab family. His father died before his birth, and he endured a difficult childhood. At age ten, he left his family to live with his uncle, Khairallah Talfah, in Baghdad. His uncle exerted a strong paternal influence on him.^【3】

A Visual of the Overthrown Iraqi Leader Saddam Hussein (AA)

In Baghdad, he attended a nationalist high school and later enrolled in law school for three years, but abandoned his studies in 1957 to join the Ba'ath Party. In 1959, he participated in an unsuccessful assassination attempt against Prime Minister Abd al-Karim Qasim and fled to Egypt via Syria.^【4】 During his exile in Egypt, he continued his legal education at Cairo Law Faculty.

Career and Rise to Power

Saddam’s political career began with his membership in the Ba'ath Party in 1957. Gamal Abdel Nasser’s pan-Arab nationalism in Egypt influenced Saddam and other young Ba'athists ideologically. The Iraqi Prime Minister Abd al-Karim Qasim’s rejection of the Egypt-Syria union and his adoption of a “Iraq First” (Vataniyye) policy, along with his alliance with communists, provoked the Ba'athists. This tension culminated in a planned assassination on October 7, 1959, along al-Rashid Street. Saddam, who was added to the team at the last minute and lacked professional training, fired prematurely during the ambush, causing the operation to collapse.

After the failed attempt, in which Qasim’s driver was killed and Qasim himself narrowly escaped wounded, Saddam and his accomplices fled the scene believing Qasim had been killed.^【5】 During his exile in Egypt (1960–1963), while studying at Cairo Law Faculty, he expanded his network within the party.

After the 1963 coup, he returned to Iraq but was arrested and imprisoned. He escaped from prison in 1966 and became a key figure in the party’s organization. Appointed Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command by Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr, he established a security service loyal solely to himself.

Consolidation of Power and Vice Presidency (1968–1979)

During the 1968 coup, he served as deputy to Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr. He planned and executed the elimination of non-Ba'athist factions led by Prime Minister Abd al-Razzaq an-Naif, whose support was crucial to the coup’s success. As vice president, he acted as the de facto leader. On June 1, 1972, he seized the shares of international oil companies in Iraq and nationalized the oil industry. Using revenue from rising oil prices during the 1973 energy crisis, he initiated modernization programs for the country’s infrastructure, education, and healthcare systems.^【6】

Presidency and the 1979 Purge

On July 16, 1979, he forced al-Bakr to resign citing health reasons and officially became president. Just days after assuming power, on July 22, 1979, he convened a conference of party leaders and ordered the arrest of 68 members whom he labeled “traitors,” executing 22 of them. This event solidified his absolute control over power.^【7】

Wars and Foreign Policy

Saddam aimed to make Iraq the leading power in the Middle East. During the Cold War, he pursued a pragmatic balancing policy: in 1972 he signed a Treaty of Friendship with the Soviet Union, and from the late 1970s onward, he developed commercial ties with the West. As a vocal supporter of the Palestinian cause, he adopted an anti-Israel stance and provided financial support to Palestinian organizations.^【8】

Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988)

Fearing Ayatollah Khomeini’s threat to export his Shia revolution after the 1979 Iranian Islamic Revolution and concerned over border disputes regarding the Shatt al-Arab waterway, Saddam launched an invasion of Iran on September 22, 1980, and occupied some territories.^【9】

Course of the War

• Early Days: Although the Iraqi military initially made advances, the war quickly devolved into a grueling war of attrition.^【10】
• International Support: Saddam received substantial financial and military backing from Gulf states, the United States, and Europe, who viewed him as “the defender of the Arab world.”^【11】
• Anfal and Halabja: During the war, he carried out the Anfal Campaign (1986–1989) against the Kurds, whom he accused of collaborating with Iran. On March 16, 1988, a chemical attack on Halabja killed thousands of civilians.^【12】
• Outcome: The war ended in 1988 with a UN-brokered ceasefire, resulting in approximately 500,000 deaths on each side and the near-bankruptcy of Iraq’s economy.^【13】

Gulf War (1990–1991)

Following its victory over Iran, Iraq emerged as the dominant military power in the Persian Gulf region. By the war’s end, the Iraqi military had grown into a force of over one million personnel, including the well-equipped Republican Guard.^【14】

However, the heavy debt burden from the Iran war (approximately $80 billion) and Kuwait’s overproduction of oil, which drove down prices, triggered a crisis between the two countries. Saddam claimed that Kuwait had historically been part of Iraq and invaded it on August 2, 1990, annexing it as Iraq’s “19th province.”

Desert Storm

Iraq’s swift defeat of Kuwaiti resistance posed a threat to Saudi Arabia, a major oil exporter in the region. Should Saudi Arabia fall, Iraq would control one-fifth of global oil supplies. Saddam also defied the UN Security Council’s deadlines and violated its resolutions.

The event that convinced Kuwait and the international community to support military action against Saddam was the testimony of Nayirah. She claimed to be a volunteer nurse in a Kuwaiti hospital during the Iraqi occupation. Two months after the invasion, she testified before the U.S. Congress that Iraqi soldiers had removed premature babies from incubators, stolen the incubators, and left the infants to die on the floor. Her testimony was widely publicized and repeatedly used to justify U.S. military intervention against Iraq.^【15】

With the backing of the Security Council, a U.S.-led coalition launched continuous missile and air strikes against Iraq starting January 16, 1991. Following the air campaign, a ground offensive expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait.

The war ended in a decisive and devastating defeat for Iraq. Internal Shia and Kurdish uprisings erupted, but Saddam brutally suppressed them.^【16】 Iraq was subjected to a prolonged and severe UN embargo.

Having survived the immediate crisis of defeat, Saddam retained control of Iraq, but the country never fully recovered economically or militarily from the Gulf War. Saddam portrayed his survival as a victory and sought to enhance his influence among other Arab nations.^【17】

Coalition Jets Flying Over Burning Kuwaiti Oil Fields During Desert Storm (US Air Force)

Final Years, Trial, and Execution

After the Gulf War, Saddam’s regime faced internal unrest and economic hardship. UN sanctions imposed over the invasion of Kuwait remained in place, blocking Iraq’s oil exports. During this period, Saddam’s Ba'athist ideology also underwent transformation.

Religion and the “Faith Campaign”

Throughout most of his career, Saddam had presided over a secular regime. In 1993, seeking to rejuvenate popular support and suppress Islamist opposition, he launched the “Faith Campaign” under the supervision of his deputy, Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri.^【18】 He added the phrase “Allahu Akbar” in his own handwriting to the Iraqi flag, accelerated mosque construction, and increased Islamic rhetoric in public life.

Invasion and Capture

In 2003, the United States and coalition forces invaded Iraq, claiming Saddam possessed weapons of mass destruction and had ties to al-Qaeda—claims later proven baseless.^【19】 The Iraqi military and government collapsed within three weeks of the invasion’s start. The fall of Baghdad on April 9, 2003, and the symbolic toppling of Saddam’s statue in Firdos Square effectively ended the Ba'ath regime. After Baghdad’s fall, Saddam went into hiding but was captured on December 13, 2003, at approximately 8:30 PM local time, in a farmhouse near his hometown of Tikrit, during Operation Red Dawn, inside a hidden underground bunker.^【20】

American Soldiers Standing Before the Crossed Swords Monument in Baghdad (DVIDS) and the Damaged Statue of Saddam During the Occupation (Picryl)

Trial and Execution

Following his capture, Saddam Hussein was prosecuted in a series of trials conducted by the Iraqi Special Tribunal (later renamed the Iraqi High Criminal Court). The first case, the Dujail trial, concerned mass arrests, torture, and executions following a 1982 assassination attempt against him in the town of Dujail. He was convicted of crimes against humanity for the killing of 148 Shiites. On November 5, 2006, he was found guilty and sentenced to death. He was hanged on December 30, 2006.^【21】

Saddam’s Appearance After Capture (DVIDS)

Ideology and Political Outlook

Ba'athism and Saddamism

Saddam Hussein was deeply committed to the ideology of the Ba'ath Party, which combined Arab nationalism with Arab socialism. During his rule, he fused this ideology with militarism and a cult of personality to create a doctrine known as “Saddamism.” This doctrine sought to unite Iraq’s ancient Mesopotamian heritage with Arab nationalism.^【22】

Bronze Statues Inspired by Babylonian Culture, Commissioned by Saddam (GetArchive)

Saddam saw himself as the modern successor to historical leaders such as King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon and Saladin. During the restoration of Babylon, he had his name inscribed on bricks to assert a claim of historical continuity.^【23】

Personal Life and Family

In 1963, Saddam married his cousin Sajida Talfah, with whom he had five children: Uday, Qusay, Raghad, Rana, and Hala. He later married Samira Shahbandar. His sons Uday and Qusay held prominent positions within the regime but were killed in a clash with U.S. forces in 2003.^【24】

Saddam Family Photograph, Late 1980s (Store Norske Leksikon)

Interests

Saddam had an interest in luxury, cigars, and gardening. Even during his imprisonment, he cultivated plants in the courtyard of his cell. In his final days in custody, he turned to poetry and literature.^【25】

Gold-Plated AK-47 Weapon Collection Gifted by Saddam (Flickr)