Western Thrace Republic

Republic of Western Thrace, officially known as the Independent Government of Western Thrace, was a short-lived Turkish republic established in the autumn of 1913 in Western Thrace with its center in Gumulcine. The term National Government of Western Thrace was also used in documents. The administration was organized under the chief of staffship of Süleyman Askerî Bey and the presidency of Hoca Salih Efendi.

Following a congress convened in Gumulcine, the government structure was established and the city became the de facto capital. Visual records from the period confirm that the government building was located in Gumulcine.

The founding of the state was announced through an independence declaration sent to foreign missions, in which the principle of equal rights for all regardless of religion or ethnic origin was emphasized. This independent political entity was dissolved by the end of October 1913 under the implementation of the Istanbul Agreement between the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria (29 September 1913); it was anticipated that administration would be handed over to Bulgaria no later than 25 October 1913. The republic’s existence was also confirmed by contemporary consular reports (British Consulate of Dedeağaç report, 6 October 1913).

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Geographical Location and Boundaries

Western Thrace is the European part of Thrace, today partially within the borders of Greece and partially within Bulgaria. The region’s current boundaries are defined to the east by the Maritsa River from Türkiye, to the west by the Mesta (Karasu) River from Macedonia, and to the north by the Rhodope Mountains from Bulgaria. Its southern boundary opens onto the Aegean Sea. Administratively, it encompasses the districts of Iskeçe, Gumulcine, and Marich (Evros).

The territory of the Western Thrace Turkish Republic (Independent Government of Western Thrace), established in 1913, is traced using maps showing “the positions of Turkish forces in Western Thrace and the boundaries of the Western Thrace Turkish Republic.” During this period, Dedeağaç (Alexandroupoli), which formed the republic’s access to the Aegean, was incorporated on 3 October 1913, serving as both the closest point to the Aegean Sea and a major commercial port connecting Europe.

The delineation of the region’s borders was determined during post-Balkan Wars discussions by the Midye–Enez line and the Maritsa River. The Ottoman Government argued that the border must be anchored on the Maritsa for the defense of the Straits and pledged not to cross it.

Map of the Western Thrace Turkish Republic (Ali Onur Kara) 

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Historical Background

Rebellions Before the Balkan Wars

From the early 19th century, national movements against Ottoman rule emerged across the Balkans. The first major wave began with the Serbian uprising. These developments were influenced not only by Enlightenment ideas but also by church organizations and Pan-Orthodox thought.

The rebellion led by Kara Yorgi in Serbia was suppressed by Ottoman forces in 1813. The process was reignited in 1815 with Miloš Obrenović’s second revolt and by the time of the 1878 Congress of Berlin, Serbia had effectively separated from the Ottoman Empire. This environment laid the groundwork for the formation of Balkan alliances by the early 20th century and ultimately led to the outbreak of war in 1912.

The Status of Western Thrace During the Balkan Wars

During the First Balkan War, Edirne resisted for 155 days before surrendering to Bulgarian forces on 26 March 1913. During this period, even food supplies to Edirne were blocked. After the Committee of Union and Progress’s coup at the Sublime Porte, the new government seized the opportunity of conflict between Bulgaria and its allies to finalize plans for an offensive in Thrace. On 13 July 1913, an order was issued to recover lost territories.

On the morning of 13 July 1913, units selected from Eşref Pasha’s detachment landed by sea along the Kumburgaz–Tekirdağ/Ereğli line; within two days, Ottoman forces reached the Midye–Enez line. During the same days, militia organization accelerated rapidly, and the term “Kuvâ-yi Milliye” was used for the first time in this struggle.

Although Edirne was recaptured on 22–23 July 1913, complaints persisted regarding repression and forced religious conversion targeting the Turkish population in Western Thrace; it was reported that Muslims were forcibly baptized and their names changed. This atmosphere strengthened the local Turkish communities’ pursuit of self-defense and administrative autonomy. Greece, following the Bucharest Agreement, strategically viewed Ottoman involvement in the Western Thrace issue as beneficial to balance Bulgarian control and establish a favorable future status. A delegation known as the “Edirne Delegation” was formed to present to European capitals the demographic composition of Thrace and the atrocities committed in occupied areas. In the following weeks, the military and political framework established around the Midye–Enez debates and concerns over the Maritsa line provided early indications of the status that would emerge through the Istanbul Agreement of September 1913.

Establishment Process (1913)

Recapture of Gumulcine and the “Provisional Government”

Units advancing from the Kırcaali line reached Gumulcine on 31 August 1913; as Bulgarian forces withdrew, the local population joined the resistance. This development was reported in the European press under headlines such as “Gumulcine and Kırcaali Reject Bulgarian Rule” and “The People of Gumulcine Drive Out the Invading Bulgarians.” Subsequently, at the invitation of Süleyman Askerî Bey, a general congress convened in Gumulcine and established the Provisional Government of Western Thrace; Müderris Salih Hoca was appointed president. Temporary governors were appointed in the districts and linked to the central authority in Gumulcine. (Koşukavak: Kamber; Iskeçe: Mehmet Niyazi; Darıdere: Yusuf; Eğridere: Hasan Vehbi; Ortaköy: Panayot; Dedeağaç: Mayor Anastas).

Declaration of Independence (25 September 1913)

A French-language declaration of independence prepared in Gumulcine on 25 September 1913 was sent to the embassies of major powers. The text emphasized that all people, regardless of religion or ethnic origin, were equal under the law, and proclaimed the establishment of the Independent Government of Western Thrace. Shortly thereafter, the British Consulate of Dedeağaç reported to the Istanbul Consulate General on 6 October 1913 that an independent state had been established in the region.

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The Independence Declaration sent by the Independent Government of Western Thrace to foreign states stated:

Excellencies of the Ambassadors,

No one witnessed the atrocities committed by the Bulgarians against the Turks and Muslim brothers, nor heard their cries, nor cared. Hundreds of Muslims were slaughtered in Koşukavak’s Papaslı village stream, their bodies still emitting a stench, and no one dared approach them. Lives were taken, honor violated, property disregarded. Moreover, the remaining elderly, women, and children were driven under bayonets into churches and forcibly converted to Christianity, yet no one claimed to have heard of it. Every form of evil was seemingly ignored. We said, “Two hands belong to one head,” and took up our arms. To free the people of Western Thrace from these atrocities, we armed them too. Relying on our God and trusting in our own strength, we hereby proclaim the Independent Government of Western Thrace, granting equal rights to Muslims, Christians, Turks, and Bulgarians alike. Success is from God.

Seal

General Government of Thrace

National Presidency

1329

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Organization

A government of eleven members was formed, selected from the assembly, with Gumulcine as the capital. Hoca Salih Efendi was appointed president and Binbaşı Süleyman Askerî Bey chief of staff. Additionally, the Western Thrace Executive Committee was established with Süleyman Askerî at its head, and Kuşçubaşı Eşref and Hacı Sami as members. The advisory council included Çerkes Reşit and Hüsrev Sami. Judicial authority was granted to courts. The Ottoman legal system in force in 1913 was adopted. The death penalty was prescribed under militia law for those who attacked life, property, or honor, and new court seals were produced.

State Symbols: Flag, Stamps, Administrative Practices

The flag, as a symbol of independence, was displayed at all official institutions. A commission composed of Dr. Tevfik Rüştü (Aras), Şeref (Aykut), Osman Nuri (Peremeci), Esat (İleri), Refet (Bele), and Faik (Kaltakkıran) was formed to determine its design and colors. A tricolor system based on black (mourning), green (Muslim element), and white-red (eternal Turkish existence) was adopted.

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Photographs of the Gumulcine government building and the Dedeağaç customs house serve as tangible evidence of the administrative structure’s consolidation. Additionally, overprinted postage stamps were issued and a decree prohibiting entry and exit without passports was published.

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National Anthem of the Western Thrace Turkish Republic

Süleyman Askerî Bey, in his capacity as Chief of the General Staff of Western Thrace, composed the Western Thrace National Anthem in Dedeağaç on 3 September 1913:

O noble Turkish child of Western Thrace, how blessed you are,

You gave life with your blood to the war of national liberation.

Your heroic deeds are engraved on every corner of the world,

Nations stand in salute before your national flag.

The soil you tread is filled with your glorious martyrs.

Enemies cannot violate the spirit of your noble heroes.

Your glorious martyrs are wrapped in the banner of liberation,

What noble honor it is to be buried in the land of your ancestors.

The wind of freedom and independence blows across the homeland,

Heroic fighters overturn this vile captivity.

This glorious war for national independence shall never be abandoned!

Even steel armies rise before us, they cannot frighten us!

We crossed the Maritsa and Karasu for national independence,

Crushing and defeating all invaders to reach our goal.

We opened a glorious republican path in the Balkans,

For the first time, we lit the torch of freedom.

This flag will wave, the republic will live!

The enemies before us will flee in fear!

We are the descendants of a nation that has lived free for thousands of years,

We are the wolves and lions of these steppes, the eagles of the skies.

The charge of our fighters always resembles a storm,

From the terror of our wartime might, enemies faint.

Western Thrace Republic will live, it will live!

The nations will marvel before our progress!

O sweet Western Thrace!... Finally, you are freed from captivity,

O enemies!... Do not think this nation is weary from war.

The lofty flag of the republic will wave daily in this land,

All Western Thrace people will live free until the end of time!^【7】 

The Dedeağaç Line and Relations with Greece

The government aimed to recapture Dedeağaç due to its role as the gateway to the Aegean. On 22–23 September 1913, fierce battles were fought near Ferecik–Sofulu on the western bank of the Maritsa against Bulgarian forces. During the same period, Greece, favoring the idea of a buffer state to keep Bulgaria away from the Aegean, initiated informal contacts and indicated its readiness to provide arms and ammunition. A 3 October 1913 report in La Lanterne also referenced arrangements made between the Western Thrace Government and Greece around Dedeağaç.

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Impact of the Istanbul Agreement

The Istanbul Agreement of 29 September 1913 ceded Western Thrace to Bulgaria. The agreement provided for a 10+15 day schedule for transfer. While the Sublime Porte awaited the handover no later than Thursday, 25 October 1913, it argued that continued resistance would endanger the gains of local Muslims. In this context, Istanbul Guard Commander Cemal Bey was assigned to persuade local leaders along the Dedeağaç–Gumulcine–Iskeçe line.

State Structure

Administrative Structure and Personnel

The system of governance is a republic based on popular will. Representatives elected through single-tier elections from districts and sub-districts form the “Assembly of Representatives”; members selected from the assembly exercise executive authority. The presidency was held by Hoca Salih Efendi. The capital is Gumulcine.

The government, like the Provisional Government of Western Thrace, consisted of eleven members: Hoca Salih Efendi, Binbaşı Süleyman Askerî Bey, Hacı Saffet Bey (Dedeağaç), Deputy of Gumulcine Müderris Mehmet Efendi, Hacıbeyzade Osman Nâil Bey, Hafız Ali Galip Efendi (Gumulcine), Hüseyin Paşa (Paşmaklı), Mehmet Paşazâde Şükrü Bey (Iskeçe), Hilmi Paşa (Iskeçe), Müderris Hacı İsa Efendi (Iskeçe), and İskeçeli Mehmet Paşa.

Additionally, the independent “Western Thrace Executive Committee” was established with Süleyman Askerî Bey as its head and Kuşçubaşı Eşref and Hacı Sami as members. The advisory council included Çerkes Reşit and Hüsrev Sami. Judicial authority was granted to courts; the Ottoman legal system in force in 1913 was adopted; those who attacked life, property, or honor were to be punished by death under militia law; new court seals were produced.

Military Structure and Personnel

Süleyman Askerî Bey, as head of the Executive Committee and Chief of the General Staff, held supreme responsibility for regional defense under the title “Commander of the Western Thrace Kuvâ-yi Milliye.” Kuşçubaşı Eşref was attached to this command under the title “Inspector of the Kuvâ-yi Milliye.” Among the detachments and militia ranks were names such as Eşref and Hacı Sami, Kafkasyalı İbrahim Cihangiroğlu, Yzb. İlyas, Ütğm. Ömer Lütfi, Tğm. Besim, Tğm. Nişantaşılı Sıtkı, Beşiktaşlı Kemal, Ahmed Kaptan, Çakır Efe, Tatar Hasan, Giritli İsmail Kaptan, Çerkes Sait Kaptan, and Mamaka Mustafa Kaptan. Logistics and munitions support were provided under Enver Bey’s orders.

Social and Demographic Structure

The region’s social fabric was multi-ethnic, with the Muslim/Turkish element being dominant; indeed, when official symbols were defined, the Muslim majority of the population was emphasized.

Ottoman-era educational data reveals a significant institutional legacy in the Gumulcine sanjak, including 951 primary schools (26,270 students; 10,551 girls). In the Dedeağaç sanjak, 31 primary schools serving Muslims were recorded alongside idadi and rüştiye schools. To grasp the region’s multi-ethnic composition numerically, the 1922 urban census provides insight: for example, Gumulcine recorded 59,967 Turks, 8,834 Greeks, and 9,997 Bulgarians; Iskeçe recorded 42,671 Turks.

Budget and Economic Structure

The incorporation of Dedeağaç into the Republic on 3 October 1913 strengthened commercial links with Europe due to its status as the closest port to the Aegean Sea. The state prepared a budget proposal detailing revenues, expenditures, and salary scales; annual allocations were calculated as 3,421,521 kuruş for Gumulcine and 1,150,000 kuruş for Kırcaali. Monthly salaries were projected as 2,000 kuruş for the president, 1,000 for government members, 950 for deputies, 950 for district governors, 750 for police, 350 for cavalrymen, and 200 for infantrymen. The same proposal discussed funding for the gendarmerie and allocations for defense, public works, and education, and a memorandum was sent to the General National Command for budget negotiations.

International Reactions

The French-language independence declaration drafted in Gumulcine was sent to foreign embassies to announce the new government’s establishment. The text emphasized the principle of “equal rights for all.” Shortly thereafter, the British Consulate of Dedeağaç reported on 6 October 1913 to the Istanbul Consulate General that an independent state had been established. However, pressure from European capitals urged compliance with the London Agreement obligations. Economic and diplomatic threats, including the refusal of new credit, were clearly communicated to the Ottoman Government. This intense international attention confirmed the factual situation on the ground and laid the groundwork for linking the process to Ottoman–Bulgarian negotiations.

The Istanbul Agreement was signed on 29 September 1913 following negotiations from 7–18 September, assigning the entirety of Western Thrace to Bulgaria. A reciprocal evacuation and transfer schedule was established. The agreement stipulated that areas to be transferred would be evacuated of troops within ten days after signing, handed over within the subsequent fifteen days, and armies disbanded within three weeks. Western Thrace was included in the general amnesty declared.

According to the agreement, the Sublime Porte awaited the handover no later than Thursday, 25 October 1913, arguing that continued armed resistance would endanger the gains of local Muslims. In this context, Istanbul Guard Commander Cemal Bey was dispatched on 2 October 1913 to persuade local leaders along the Dedeağaç–Gumulcine–Iskeçe line, personally explaining the reasons for the commitments to prevent bloodshed. The Ottoman stance was interpreted as a conciliatory and stabilizing initiative consistent with the prevailing diplomatic policy.

Greece

Greece, seeking to prevent Bulgaria’s access to the Aegean, established contact with the Western Thrace administration through intermediaries, communicated its readiness to recognize the Mesta (Karasu) River as a boundary, and offered arms and ammunition. However, the Western Thrace side recorded assessments that these promises were not fulfilled and that military measures were instead intensified. Reports in international media also noted Dedeağaç’s handover to the Western Thrace Government (La Lanterne, 3 October 1913). This headline reflects Greece’s simultaneous pursuit of short-term balancing and diplomatic caution.

Bulgaria

Despite fatigue after the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria strengthened its stance against the Western Thrace administration while conducting propaganda before the Great Powers. Contacts with the Ottoman side continued through Cemal Bey, as the transfer of Western Thrace was expected under the agreement. Bulgaria’s warnings to other states regarding the possibility of Greek entry into the region were also documented.

Western Thrace in the International Press

The French press followed the developments day by day: Le Petit Journal published headlines such as “The People of Gumulcine Drive Out the Bulgarians,” and Le Matin carried “Gumulcine and Kırcaali Reject Bulgarian Rule”; La Lanterne also reported on arrangements concerning Dedeağaç.

Dissolution

The emergence of the Independent Government of Western Thrace was viewed as a factual violation of the London Agreement terms. Under Bulgarian initiative, the governments of Paris and Vienna reminded the Sublime Porte of its responsibilities and issued warnings of sanctions, including refusal of new credit. This line accelerated Ottoman–Bulgarian negotiations, leading to the signing of the Istanbul Agreement on 29 September 1913, which stipulated that the entirety of Western Thrace would remain under Bulgarian control.

According to implementation clauses, territories to be transferred were to be evacuated of troops within ten days of signing, handed over within the following fifteen days, and armies disbanded within three weeks. Western Thrace was included in the general amnesty declared.

As required by the agreement, the Sublime Porte awaited the handover no later than Thursday, 25 October 1913, arguing that continued resistance would endanger the gains of local Muslims. In this context, Istanbul Guard Commander Cemal Bey was appointed on 2 October 1913 to persuade local leaders along the Dedeağaç–Gumulcine–Iskeçe line.

Tension arose between forces on the ground who wished to continue resistance and the Sublime Porte’s policy of compliance. Süleyman Askerî Bey informed Istanbul that his comrades desired resistance against the Bulgarians but that he could not suppress their will, and urged the swift dispatch of Cemal Bey to prevent bloodshed. Upon arriving on the ground, Cemal Bey sought to meet Kuşçubaşı Eşref but was detained by militia in Koşukavak and taken to a garrison, where he was then informed, under Süleyman Askerî’s orders, that he held “parliamentary” status and could not move freely. Meanwhile, as talks continued, Talat Pasha secretly invited Eşref Bey to Istanbul.

The central authority had already issued orders before the agreement (25 September 1913) to recall volunteer officers and soldiers, yet some personnel chose to remain in the Western Thrace Turkish Republic and declared they had severed ties with the Ottoman state. The 10+15 day transfer schedule and the 25 October 1913 deadline established by the Istanbul Agreement formed the principal framework for the dissolution process, which was met with profound disappointment among the Turkish population of Western Thrace.

Condition of the Turkish Population After Dissolution

Immediately after dissolution, military units withdrew in accordance with the withdrawal plan, and part of the arms and ammunition sent from Türkiye was returned. The remainder was stored in crates, buried underground for future use. To safeguard the “rights, security, and legal protections” of the Turkish and Muslim population and to manage affairs until a Turkish consulate opened, Üsteğmen Fuat was assigned to Iskeçe, İskeçeli Arif and Sadık to Gumulcine, and Ali Rıza Bey to Dedeağaç.

Policy of Preserving Demographics

Following the Istanbul Agreement of 29 September 1913, which ceded Western Thrace to Bulgaria, the Ottoman State adopted a policy of refusing to accept immigrants from Western Thrace, aiming to preserve demographic weight by encouraging the local population to remain in place.

General Amnesty

The Istanbul Agreement included a general amnesty, which applied to Western Thrace. However, no one could benefit from the amnesty until two weeks after Bulgaria’s official proclamation. The same text prescribed a strict schedule: evacuation of troops within ten days, transfer within the following fifteen days. This framework constituted the primary mechanism for the transition of authority for the Turkish population on the ground.

Bulgarian Administration

Forcible baptism and name changes during and after the Balkan Wars created traumatic experiences and deep apprehension among the native Muslim/Turkish population. Memoirs recount that “300,000 Turks were forcibly baptized by Bulgarians,” reflecting this climate. After dissolution, daily life unfolded under the shadow of this memory of repression.

Organizations and Local Administrative Initiatives During the War Years (1915–1922)

In the following years, the Turks of the region continued political and military organization whenever opportunities arose. The “Western Thrace Liberation Committee,” established in Drama/Radalios on 30 July 1915, exerted influence over a 19,000 km² area with a population of 320,000. Active until 27 September 1917, this organization dispatched an 18,000-strong force to the Galicia Front. It intensified divisions within Greek domestic politics through sabotage and secured the election of 14 Turks to the Greek Parliament through agreements. This period ended with the withdrawal of the XX Corps on 27 September 1917.

After the Armistice, following the establishment of the “Allied Western Thrace Government,” Lieutenant Fuat initiated resistance near Gumulcine against advancing Greek forces. On 25 May 1920, the “National Government of Western Thrace” was established in Gumulcine–Hemetli, attempting to give local governance needs a political form.

Demographic Profile (1922)

The 1922 census, taken approximately nine years after dissolution, demonstrates that the Turkish population maintained its regional weight: 59,967 Turks in Gumulcine and 42,671 Turks in Iskeçe were recorded (total population 196,606). This data is crucial for understanding how the policy of staying in place and local resilience shaped the demographic landscape.

At the Threshold of Lausanne

During the Lausanne negotiations, on 30 January 1923, the “Greek-Turkish Population Exchange” was adopted under the minority heading, but the provisions explicitly excluded “Muslims residing in Western Thrace” and “Greeks living in Istanbul.” Thus, the Turkish/Muslim population remaining in the region was exempt from forced relocation under the exchange but entered a separate process to define their status and rights under the new Greek administration.

The most prominent figure in this process was Dr. Sadık Ahmet. Dr. Sadık Ahmet, for leading a campaign in 1985 gathering 15,000 signatures to defend the rights of the Turkish minority in Western Thrace, was sentenced to 30 months in prison and fined. Nevertheless, on 25 September 1987, he distributed statements in Thessaloniki denouncing the minority’s grievances and participated in the Turkic Rally on 29 January 1988.

In 1989, he was elected as an independent member of parliament from Rodopi, re-elected in 1990, but excluded from parliament in the 1993 early elections due to the 3% national electoral threshold, which effectively limited minority representation. To strengthen the political organization of the Turkish and Muslim minority of Western Thrace, he founded the Friendship, Equality, Peace (DEB) Party on 13 October 1991 and died in a suspicious traffic accident on 24 July 1995.

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