Critical Pedagogy

Critical pedagogy is an approach regarded as an extension of critical theory, which originated with the Frankfurt School. In its broadest sense, it can be understood as an educational critique that engages with educational issues. This approach is fundamentally shaped by questioning and redefining the very nature of education. At its core, it rejects the oppressive and hierarchical relationships between educators and learners that are typically ignored by dominant educational systems, aiming to liberate subjects reduced to objects within the educational process.

Critical pedagogy possesses a multidimensional structure that examines the relationships between education and social institutions, as well as the problems arising from these relationships, through philosophical, sociological, ideological, and political lenses. Within this framework, it is organized around responses to questions such as: “Why do we do what we do?”, “Why do we follow traditional methods?”, and “Whose interests does state-controlled education serve?”

Historical Development and Theoretical Foundations

The origins of critical pedagogy lie in critical theory, which became prominent with the establishment in the 1920s of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt, also known as the Frankfurt School. Traces of critical theory can be traced back to the 1840s, and it is noted to have been nourished by German idealism while drawing on Marx and Freud as primary references. The critical stance of critical theory toward positivism, bureaucratic domination, and modern totalitarianism significantly influenced the formation of critical pedagogy.

As part of the theoretical debates in the field of critical pedagogy, contributions have been made by numerous figures including Plato, John Dewey, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Erich Fromm, and Sigmund Freud. In the development of the field, the work of educator Paulo Freire, thinkers Antonio Gramsci, Ivan Illich, Anton Makarenko, and Pierre Bourdieu, as well as critical pedagogues Henry Giroux, Michael Apple, and Peter McLaren, has been decisive.

Core Concepts and Goals

Critical pedagogy treats education as a political act, aiming to eliminate inequalities in society and bring freedom to the oppressed. Its fundamental goals include using education to create a more equitable society, uniting the oppressed through a common language of struggle, and transforming intellectual thought and practice within schools. According to critical pedagogy theorist Henry Giroux, the aim of critical pedagogy is to transform educational practices and schools by creating an environment in which teachers and students can question the relationships between theory and practice, critical analysis and common sense, and learning and social transformation.

The core concepts of this approach are as follows:

Conscientization

Developed by Paulo Freire, this concept refers to individuals’ ability to critically comprehend their own conditions and modes of existence in the world. In this process, the world is understood not as a static reality but as one in constant transformation.

Dialogue

It denotes a non-hierarchical, reciprocal communication process between teachers and students. In this process, teachers and students become co-researchers in critical inquiry. According to critical theorist Henry Giroux, dialogue is one of the most fundamental concepts of critical pedagogy.

Praxis

It is the capacity to transform thought into action, to think within action, and to elevate this process into a philosophy. Critical pedagogy aims, through praxis, to make critical consciousness learned in education applicable to everyday life.

Critical Pedagogy and Traditional Education

Critical pedagogy offers systematic critiques of traditional educational paradigms, which are often criticized for their focus on shaping students and their adherence to behaviorist approaches.

The Banking Model of Education

Paulo Freire, a pioneering theorist of critical pedagogy, defines traditional education as the “banking model of education.” In this model, students are seen as “empty vessels” to be filled by the teacher. Education becomes a “deposit investment,” students are treated as “investment objects,” and teachers assume the role of “investors.” Theorist Freire summarizes the roles in this model as follows:

1. The teacher teaches and the students receive.
2. The teacher knows everything and the students know nothing.
3. The teacher thinks and students are thought about.
4. The teacher speaks and the students listen quietly.
5. The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined.
6. The teacher chooses and the students conform to the choice.
7. The teacher acts and the students live within the illusion of this action.
8. The teacher selects the curriculum and the students conform to it.
9. The teacher combines the authority of knowledge with professional authority.
10. The teacher is the subject of the learning process and the students are its object.

This model is accused of viewing human beings as passive and manipulated entities and of suppressing students’ critical consciousness.

Problem-Posing Education

Problem-posing education: As an alternative to the banking model, educator Paulo Freire proposes “problem-posing education.” In this approach, there is no authority; teachers and students are co-researchers engaged in dialogue. The foundation lies not in the transmission of knowledge but in perceiving and critically understanding the world as a process.

Critiques of the Educational System

Critical pedagogy interrogates existing educational systems from multiple perspectives:

Capitalism and Neoliberalism

Critical pedagogues argue that capitalist and neoliberal economic policies are rooted in inequality and produce docile individuals through public schools, thereby securing their own future dominance. In this system, education becomes a commodity to be bought and sold, states become supermarkets, and citizens are transformed into consumers. Young people are increasingly turned into consuming subjects rather than critical agents.

Ideology and Power

It is argued that schools function as instruments through which a dominant elite class shapes the moral and social beliefs of the populace. According to this view, state-controlled schools and curricula produce standardized citizens who conform to the directives of dominant powers. Education is seen as a field of struggle and negotiation where power and ideology are deeply intertwined.

Standardized Testing and Curriculum

Centrally designed national curricula and examinations are questioned by critical pedagogues. According to critical pedagogue Michael Apple, such examinations exacerbate inequalities faced by disadvantaged groups such as the poor, female students, and those living in rural areas, contributing to social stratification.

Areas of Application

The perspective of critical pedagogy has created a foundation for its application in numerous fields. These include teacher education, foreign language teaching, international studies, learning and teaching processes, administration, postmodernity, technology, and the struggle against discrimination. In particular, art education and visual culture studies have emerged as significant application areas. In this context, popular culture products such as advertisements, music videos, films, and toys are used as objects of critical inquiry in art classrooms.

Critical Pedagogy Research in Türkiye

Academic interest in critical pedagogy in Türkiye has increased notably since 2010. According to a bibliographic analysis, the first publication in this field appeared in 2010, with the majority of publications concentrated between 2018 and 2022. Research has predominantly employed qualitative methods, with literature reviews, survey research, and case studies being the most frequently chosen models. Research participants are typically teachers and teacher candidates. While many studies lack explicit references to specific educational levels, research has been conducted at the primary and higher education levels, with a noted absence of studies at the preschool and secondary education levels. Additionally, a political journal titled “Critical Pedagogy Journal” has been regularly published since 2009.

Debates

Applications of critical pedagogy in visual culture studies within art education have generated certain debates. Criticisms of this approach often stem from concerns that focusing on visual culture and popular art may undermine the position of “high art” in education. Some educators argue that the act of making art itself holds intrinsic value and that art education should not be reduced solely to image analysis. A primary concern is that students must first possess foundational aesthetic knowledge and experience in order to understand the political and social dimensions of aesthetics.

Moreover, it has been noted that critical pedagogy’s exclusive focus on contemporary art requires teachers to continuously update their curricula in response to annually changing social and political issues. Art education thinker Arthur Efland points to two fundamental problems: First, the expansion of subject matter in art classes makes it difficult to fit content into limited class time; second, the risk of a “lack of hierarchy,” since not all objectives can be addressed with equal priority.