Ethnobotany

Ethnobotany is a scientific discipline that studies the mutual relationships between humans and plants, extending from the evolutionary process that began in prehistory to the present day. In a narrower sense, it investigates how local communities in a specific geographic region utilize naturally occurring plants to meet various needs such as food, medicine, fuel, dye, and shelter, as well as the impact of these uses on the plants themselves. This discipline is interdisciplinary, integrating fields such as anthropology, botany, archaeology, pharmacology, ecology, and folklore. The primary objective of its research is to document local plant names, uses, preparation methods, and application techniques, thereby laying the groundwork for their scientific evaluation.

Definition and Scope

The term “ethnobotany” was first defined in 1895 by biology professor John W. Harshberger as “the use of plants by local populations.” Harshberger’s work titled “The Purposes of Ethnobotany” is recognized as the first publication to use this term. Over time, the definition has evolved; in 1993, Yen redefined it as “all types of reciprocal relationships between plants and indigenous peoples.” Today, ethnobotany encompasses not only the ways in which plants are used but also the ecological conditions of the environments in which these plants grow.

The scope of ethnobotanical research is broad and primarily includes the following areas:

• Medicinal Uses: The use of plants as folk remedies for treating or preventing diseases.

• Food Uses: The consumption of wild plants as vegetables, fruits, spices, or beverages.

• Industrial and Craft Uses: The use of plants in the production of dyes, fibers, building materials, tools, baskets, brooms, and decorative items.

• Fuel and Fodder Uses: The use of plants as fuel for heating or as animal feed.

• Belief and Ritual Uses: The use of plants in beliefs such as the evil eye or in religious ceremonies.

• Local Nomenclature: The collection of regional plant names and their correlation with scientific names.

Historical Development

The origins of human-plant relationships are as ancient as human history itself. The discovery of plant remains such as chamomile, rosemary, and mallow in a Neanderthal burial site in Shanidar Cave, northern Iraq, dated to approximately 60,000 years ago, is considered one of the earliest archaeological evidences of this relationship. These findings suggest that people of that era began distinguishing plants as sources of food and medicine.

The history of plant use in Anatolia also extends far back in time. Recipe formulas found on Hittite tablets serve as evidence of this deep-rooted tradition. Names such as “haššika” (poppy) and “zertun” (olive) mentioned in these texts show similarities to contemporary local names. During the Seljuk period, Ibn Baytar’s (1197–1248) work “Al-Mufradat” provided detailed information on medicinal plants in Anatolia and served as a source for Ottoman medical texts. Information from the Ottoman Empire period is found in the writings of travelers such as Ibn Battuta and Evliya Çelebi.

Scientific research in ethnobotany in Türkiye began in the late 19th century, with pharmacists conducting the earliest studies. During the Republican era, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Alfred Heilbronn initiated modern pharmacognosy research in Türkiye.

Theoretical Approach and Methodology

Ethnobotanical research is conducted following a specific methodology, typically involving the following steps:

Fieldwork and Data Collection

The foundation of the research consists of interviews with local communities. Researchers collect data through direct interviews or surveys in selected settlement areas such as villages or towns. Information recorded includes local plant names, the plant parts used (roots, leaves, flowers, etc.), purposes of use, preparation methods, and application techniques. Interviewees are selected from diverse segments of the community—including the elderly, women, men, children, and shepherds—since each group may possess specialized knowledge about different plants.

Plant Specimen Collection and Identification

Plants mentioned during interviews are collected from the field accompanied by the informant. Collected specimens are pressed and dried according to herbarium techniques and labeled. Their scientific identification is typically carried out using foundational floristic works such as “Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands.” Identified specimens are stored in university herbaria.

Data Analysis and Evaluation

Collected data are compared with existing scientific literature to determine whether a particular plant use has been previously documented. In recent years, quantitative ethnobotanical studies employing statistical methods to analyze data have become increasingly common.

Application Areas

The ways in which the people of Anatolia utilize plants are highly diverse, encompassing a broad spectrum from basic needs to cultural practices.

Food and Spices

Many wild plants are consumed as food by local communities. These plants are eaten raw in salads, cooked in meals, dried, or pickled for winter storage. For example, the stems of Gundelia tournefortii (kenger) are used in cooking, while the fresh leaves of species such as Capsella bursa-pastoris (shepherd’s purse) and Malva neglecta (common mallow) are consumed as salads or vegetables. Species of Thymus (thyme) and Mentha (mint) are widely used as spices.

Capsella bursa-pastoris (Shepherd’s Purse) (Pexels)

Folk Medicine

The medicinal use of plants is one of the most extensively studied areas in ethnobotany. Local communities have traditionally relied on knowledge passed down through generations to treat ailments such as gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory illnesses, rheumatic pain, wounds, and various skin conditions.

• The resin of Pistacia khinjuk (bittim) is reported to be used against gastric ulcers.

• The boiled water from fruits of Aristolochia bottae (loğusa otu) is applied externally for foot wounds and swelling.

• Urtica dioica (stinging nettle) is described as a remedy for all ailments and is used for various purposes ranging from liver disorders to diabetes.

Urtica dioica (Stinging Nettle) (Pexels)

• Teucrium polium (bitter herb) is used to treat digestive disorders in both humans and animals.

• The plant Plumbago europaea (artoğa) has been recorded as being used by women seeking to become pregnant.

Fuel and Fodder

In rural areas, woody parts or roots of certain plants are used as fuel.

• Species of Astragalus (geven), roots of Phlomis (çalba), and dried parts of Gundelia tournefortii (kenger) are among the plants used for this purpose. In regions where animal husbandry is widespread, numerous plant species are utilized as animal feed. Fifty-nine taxa have been identified as fodder in the Arat Mountains and surrounding areas. Many species within the Fabaceae (legume) family are commonly referred to as “yonca” and used as animal feed.

Phlomis (Çalba) (Pexels)

Dye

Before the widespread use of synthetic dyes, plants served as the primary source for dyeing wool and fabrics. Although this tradition has largely declined, it persists in some regions.

• The dye obtained from the flowers of Eminium rauwolfii (zillike) has been reported to be used for marking sheep.

• Branches of Hypericum (kantaron) species yield a purple-brown color when used to dye wool.

Hypericum (Kantaron) (Pexels)

Other Uses

• Broom Making: The above-ground parts of plants such as Amaranthus blitoides (bostanbozan), Kochia scoparia (broom grass), and Centaurea virgata (tehli broom) are used in broom production.

• Belief and Ritual: Decorative items made from seeds of Peganum harmala (üzürlük) are hung in homes to ward off the evil eye and burned after a person’s death to purify the soul.

• Play: The fruits of Erodium cicutarium (dön-gel) and Geranium dissectum (clock flower) are used by children for play.

• Indicator Plant: The plant Helianthemum salicifolium (güneşgülü) has been reported to indicate the presence of the subterranean fungus Terfezia boudieri (keme).

• Water Purification: The milky sap from species of Euphorbia (sütleğen) has been recorded as being used by shepherds to clarify turbid water pools.

Ethnobotanical Research in Türkiye

Türkiye, with its rich flora comprising approximately 12,000 plant taxa and over 3,750 endemic species, holds immense potential for ethnobotanical research. Studies conducted in Türkiye are of great value in documenting this richness and preserving cultural heritage for future generations.

A study covering the period from 1928 to 1997 found that the highest number of ethnobotanical studies were carried out in the Black Sea and Central Anatolia regions, with human health and food being the most frequently investigated uses. This compilation noted that no studies had been conducted during that period in the provinces of Batman, Çankırı, Kırıkkale, Mardin, Nevşehir, Sakarya, and Şırnak.

When examining studies conducted between 1998 and 2008, an increase in the number of studies across the country was observed. During this period, the highest number of studies again occurred in Central Anatolia, while the fewest were conducted in Southeastern Anatolia. According to the most recent compilations, Batman and Kırıkkale provinces continue to remain unexplored from an ethnobotanical perspective.

To enhance the scientific knowledge in this field, institutions such as the Traditional Medicines Research and Application Center (GİLAM) have been established in Türkiye, and projects such as the Turkish Ethnobotanical Database (TEBVET) have been implemented. Such initiatives play a critical role in consolidating scattered data into centralized repositories accessible to researchers and in safeguarding cultural knowledge.

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