Rose

Rose (Rosa spp.) is a perennial, shrub-like plant belonging to the Rosaceae (Rose family) with a wide distribution spanning world in diameter. Throughout history it has held a prominent place in various cultures due to its aesthetic, medicinal and economic value. Rose species are generally of West Asia and Europe origin and approximately 200 different species exist worldwide. Türkiye, with its exceptionally high diversity of rose species, is a significant player in global rose production.

Throughout history, the rose has been valued both as an ornamental plant and as a resource in medical and cosmetic applications. In ancient Greek, Roman and Persian civilizations, the rose was regarded as a symbol of beauty, love and purity, and was used medicinally to treat skin conditions and in the preparation of natural remedies. During the Middle Era in Europe, it was cultivated in monastery gardens and frequently referenced in medical manuscripts for rose-based remedies. In the Ottoman period, rose oil and rose water production became a major economic value, with the Isparta region emerging as a leading center for rose cultivation.

Türkiye holds a critical position in global rose production and trade. Among the country’s most important rose-growing regions are Isparta, Burdur, Afyon and Denizli . In particular, Isparta is a major production area for Rosa damascena Mill.  and ranks among the world leaders in rose oil production. Türkiye meets approximately 70% of the global demand for rose oil. This situation demonstrates the significant strategic importance of rose cultivation to the country’s agricultural economy.

Rose (https://pixabay.com/en/illustrations/rose-flower-white-bloom-9294175/)

Botanical and Taxonomic Characteristics of the Rose Plant

Classification of the Rose Plant

The rose (Rosa spp.) is a perennial, shrub-like plant within the Rosaceae family. Approximately 200 rose species have been identified within this family, characterized typically by woody structures, thorny stems and fragrant flowers. Rose species may be climbing, trailing, dwarf or shrub-like in growth form. Structurally, the rose plant has deep roots and is capable of adapting to diverse soil and climatic conditions.

Rose Species and Genetic Diversity

Roses exhibit extensive genetic diversity in their natural habitats. While over 200 rose species exist worldwide, approximately 35% of them grow in Türkiye. In Türkiye, 55 distinct taxon have been identified across 46 species. These species vary according to geographic location and ecological conditions. To preserve genetic diversity and ensure sustainable cultivation, some species are protected in botany gardens. Roses are used in genetic breeding programs to develop new, more resilient varieties through hybridization techniques to develop and common.

Natural and Cultivated Rose Species in Türkiye

Türkiye is a rich country in terms of both wild and cultivated rose species. Among its native roses are Rosa canina (dog rose), Rosa gallica and Rosa pisiformis such as species. In particular, Rosa damascena (Isparta rose) is one of the most important cultivated species in Türkiye and holds significant economic value for rose oil production.

Natural species are commonly found in the Black Sea, Mediterranean and Inner Anatolia regions. Especially in areas such as Isparta, Burdur, Afyon and Denizli, the cultivated culture roses are used for global rose oil production. Some native rose species in Türkiye are used for medicinal and aromatic purposes, while others are valued as ornamental plants. Cultivated rose varieties are grown on a large commercial scale and are extensively utilized in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries.

To ensure the conservation of rose species and sustainable production, modern agricultural techniques and genetic breeding programs are being conducted. Alongside traditional cultivation methods, row tissue culture and genetic engineering techniques are being developed to produce higher-yielding and disease-resistant varieties.

Ecological and Geographic Distribution of the Rose

Growth Areas and Ecological Requirements of the Rose

The rose plant thrives best in temperate and semi-dry climates. It generally produces higher yields at elevations between 800 and 1500 meters. The rose is sensitive to temperature fluctuations, with extreme cold or high temperatures efficiency negatively impacting growth. Optimum optimal growth temperature ranges between 15–25°C.

In terms of soil, the rose plant performs best in well-drained, slightly alkaline (pH 6.0–7.5) and humus rich soils. Soils with high water retention capacity, such as clay or heavy soils, are unsuitable for rose cultivation. Additionally, regular irrigation is of great importance in rose production, particularly during the flowering period when water demand increases.

Rose Cultivation Regions in Türkiye

Türkiye holds an important position in global rose production and possesses regions with suitable climatic and soil conditions for rose farming. The most intensive rose cultivation areas in Türkiye are as follows:

• Isparta: The largest rose production center in Türkiye and the most important region for cultivating Rosa damascena. It holds a key position in global rose oil production.
• Burdur: This neighboring region to Isparta is known for high-quality rose cultivation, especially in its higher altitude areas.
• Afyon and Denizli: Regions where rose farming has expanded in recent years, with production primarily targeting the cosmetic and food industries.
• Balıkesir, Kütahya and Sakarya: Areas with dense populations of wild roses and potential for commercial rose production.

Roses grown in these regions exhibit different quality and aroma characteristics due to climatic conditions and soil composition. These differences are particularly decisive factors in determining rose oil quality.

Effects of Climate Change on Rose Production

In recent years, climate change has significantly impacted rose production. Rising global temperatures and altered precipitation patterns negatively affect rose flowering duration and yield. In particular, sudden temperature increases during spring months cause premature bud opening and subsequent yield loss road.

Additionally, declining water resources and increased drought risk are raising irrigation demands in rose cultivation. The adoption of sustainable farming practices and water-saving irrigation systems in rose-growing regions constitutes one of the key measures against climate change. Furthermore, developing more resilient rose varieties and adaptation research is essential to make production processes more efficient.

Rose Cultivation and Production Techniques

Traditional and Modern Cultivation Methods

Traditional rose cultivation methods involve natural, low-cost production techniques that have been practiced for long years. These include seed propagation, cutting propagation and grafting sapling. In traditional methods, organic organic fertilizers are typically used to enhance soil fertility, and water needs are met by natural rainfall.

Modern cultivation methods are scientifically supported techniques aimed at increasing yield and producing disease-resistant rose varieties. These include tissue culture, greenhouse-controlled cultivation and biotechnological applications. Modern techniques accelerate the rose plant’s growth cycle while enhancing both production volume and product quality.

Soil and Climatic Factors in Rose Production

Soil and climatic factors are of great importance in rose cultivation. The rose plant prefers well-drained, humus-rich and slightly alkaline soils. Soil pH should generally range between 6.0 and 7.5. Heavy soils with high water retention capacity are unsuitable for production as they can lead to root rot.

Climatically, the rose grows best in temperate and semi-arid regions. The optimal temperature range is 15–25°C, and the plant is sensitive to temperature fluctuations. High temperatures can negatively affect flowering, while extreme cold can cause damage during the budding period.

Fertilization, Irrigation and Pest Management

Regular fertilization is necessary to prevent nutrient deficiencies in rose cultivation. Organic and chemical fertilizers are typically used together. Phosphorus- and potassium-rich fertilizers support flowering, while nitrogen-rich fertilizers promote vegetative growth.

Irrigation is another critical factor directly affecting yield. Regular watering during the flowering period enhances flower quality. Drip irrigation is preferred due to its water-saving properties and direct delivery of water to the plant. Over-irrigation must be avoided as it can lead to root rot.

The most common pests in rose cultivation include spider mites (Tetranychus urticae), leaf aphids and thrips. Harmful management is achieved through biological control and chemical applications. Within an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) framework, natural predators are used to control pests and chemical usage is minimized.

Diseases and Pests of the Rose

Common Diseases in Rose Plants

Various diseases threaten plant health in rose cultivation. These are typically caused by fungi, bacterium and virus. The most frequently encountered fungal diseases include powdery mildew (Podosphaera pannosa), rust (Phragmidium spp.), land black spot (Diplocarpon rosae) and botrytis blight (Botrytis cinerea).

• Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera pannosa): Forms a white powdery layer on leaves, reducing the plant’s photosynthetic capacity.
• Rust (Phragmidium spp.): Produces orange-red spores on the underside of leaves, leading to severe leaf drop.
• Black Spot (Diplocarpon rosae): Creates black spots on leaves, weakening the plant by causing premature defoliation.
• Botrytis Blight (Botrytis cinerea): Causes brown rot on flowers, thriving particularly in humid conditions.

To control these diseases, priority should be given to cultural measures such as selecting resistant varieties, ensuring good air circulation in cultivation areas and regular pruning.

Pests and Biological Control Methods

The rose plant is susceptible to attacks by various insect and flow species. The most common pests are:

• Aphids (Aphidoidea): Concentrate on young shoots and the undersides of leaves, feeding on plant sap and stunting growth.
• Spider Mites (Tetranychus urticae): Cause yellowing and drying of leaves.
• Thrips (Frankliniella spp.): Cause discoloration of flowers and leaves.

Biological methods are of great importance in combating these pests. The use of beneficial insects (e.g., ladybugs and parasitic wasps) reduces chemical pesticide use and enhances environmental sustainability. Mechanical control methods, such as regular leaf washing or manual removal of pests, are also applied within integrated pest management.

Integrated Pest Management in Rose Production

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an approach that combines biological, cultural and mechanical control methods while minimizing chemical interventions. Common IPM practices include:

1. Use of Resistant Varieties: Selecting rose varieties resistant to diseases and pests.
2. Cultural Practices: Pruning, regulating plant density and using healthy planting material.
3. Biological Control: Utilizing natural predator insects.
4. Chemical Control: Using pesticides only when necessary and choosing those with minimal environmental impact.

Rose Oil and Volatile Components

Species Used in Rose Oil Production

The most commonly used species in rose oil production is Rosa damascena Mill., primarily cultivated on a large scale in Türkiye, Bulgaria, Morocco and Iran. In addition, Rosa gallica, Rosa centifolia and some local species are also grown for essential oil extraction.

In Türkiye, rose oil production is concentrated largely in Isparta and its surroundings, where the cultivated Rosa damascena is internationally recognized for its high volatile oil content and superior quality.

Methods of Rose Oil Extraction

Rose oil production is carried out using different methods depending on the processing of the flowers. The most common methods are:

• Steam Distillation: The most widely used method, involving the distillation of rose petals with steam to separate the essential oil. This method yields the highest quality rose oil.
• Solvent Extraction: A less expensive and more efficient method, but the resulting product, called absolute, is not considered fully natural.
• CO₂ Extraction: A method using high-pressure carbon dioxide, increasingly preferred in recent years.

Chemical Composition and Quality Criteria of Rose Oil

Rose oil acquires its distinctive has fragrance and therapeutic properties through its various volatile components. The most important constituents are:

• Citronellol (%30–45): Provides a sweet, refreshing scent.
• Geraniol (%10–20): One of the primary components of the rose aroma.
• Nerol (%5–12): Has a pleasant, slightly sweet fragrance profile.
• Phenylethyl Alcohol (%1–3): Imparts a mild floral and sweet aroma.

The quality of rose oil is directly related to the proportions of these components. Production region, climatic conditions and processing method are key factors influencing quality. Internationally, the highest quality rose oils are generally sourced from Isparta and Bulgaria.

Quality control in rose oil production is performed using advanced analytical methods such as gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS), which determine the oil’s composition and purity level.

Economic and Commercial Importance of the Rose

Rose Trade in Türkiye and Worldwide

Rose trade holds significant economic importance due to the production and export of high-value products such as rose oil and rose water. Türkiye is among the world’s largest producers of rose oil, with intensive cultivation in Isparta, Burdur, Afyon and Denizli. Türkiye meets approximately 70% of global rose oil demand and, alongside Bulgaria, Iran and Morocco, is one of the most important players in the global market together.

Among the world’s largest rose producers are Türkiye, Bulgaria, Iran, Morocco and India. Rose oil produced in Türkiye is highly valued in European and American markets and is regarded as a premium product in the demand and cosmetic sectors.

Export and Market Status of Rose Products

Rose-based products exported from Türkiye include rose oil, rose water, rose jam and dried rose petals. Major export markets include France, Germany, USA and Japan. France, as one of the world’s largest perfume producers, is one of the largest buyers of Turkish rose oil.

Türkiye’s main competitor in rose exports is Bulgaria. While Bulgaria’s rose production primarily targets the European market, Türkiye exports to both European and Asian markets. Turkish rose products hold a competitive position internationally due to high-quality production processes and geographical advantages.

Economic Contributions of Rose-Based Products

Rose cultivation provides a vital livelihood source for many farmers, especially in rural areas of Türkiye. Rose production and processing generate significant employment, particularly in Isparta and its surroundings. Export revenues from rose-based products constitute an important foreign exchange income for Türkiye, generating millions of dollars annually.

Rose products are used not only in the only perfume and cosmetic industries but also in food, pharmaceutical and aromatherapy sectors. Food products such as rose jam, rose lokum and rose sherbet are in high demand, especially in the Middle East and Asian markets.

Pharmacological and Medicinal Uses of the Rose

Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Rose Components

The rose plant possesses potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties due to its rich chemical composition. Various rose species, particularly Rosa damascena, contain phenolic compounds, flavonoids and essential oils. These components prevent cellular damage caused by free radicals and exhibit anti-inflammatory effects.

Rose components include phenolic acids (gallic acid, chlorogenic acid), flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin) and terpenoids. These compounds are known for their immune-boosting and anti-aging effects. Additionally, rose oil and rose water demonstrate soothing and regenerative effects on the skin.

Traditional Medicine and Modern Phytotherapy Uses of the Rose

In traditional medicine, the rose has been used for centuries to treat various ailments. In Ottoman medicine, rose water was recommended for stomach disorders, oral ulcers and nervous system disturbances. In Iranian and Indian traditional medicine, rose oil and rose water were used for digestive disorders, skin conditions and head pain.

In modern phytotherapy, rose extracts show soothing effects on depression, Anxiety and sleep disorders. Various pharmacological studies indicate that rose essential oils may have relaxing and antidepressant effects on the central nervous system. Additionally, rose water is widely used as a skin cleanser due to its mild antiseptic properties.

Rose Products in Cosmetics and Pharmacy

Rose oil and rose water have wide applications in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. Rose-based cosmetic products include creams, lotions, face masks and toners. Rose oil is particularly favored in many cosmetic formulations due to its skin-regenerating and aging properties.

In pharmacy, rose extracts are used in medical creams, antiseptic solutions and natural drug formulations due to their antimicrobial and wound healing properties. Thanks to their anti-inflammatory effects, rose-based products are preferred as adjunctive agents in treating skin conditions such as eczema and dermatitis.

Use of Rose in Food and Personal Care Products

Rose-Based Food Products

Rose is an important ingredient in the food industry due to its aromatic properties and health benefits. Products derived from rose petals and extracts are widely used in sweets, beverages and traditional kitchen practices. The most common rose-based food products in Türkiye are:

• Rose Jam: Produced in Isparta and surrounding areas from Rosa damascena flowers, it has a sweet and aromatic flavor.
• Rose Syrup: A beverage dating back to Ottoman cuisine, it is favored for its cooling and soothing effects.
• Rose Lokum: A special variety of traditional Turkish delight flavored with rose aroma.

These products are in high demand both domestically and in export markets, particularly to Middle Eastern and European countries. Rose-based food products are classified as functional foods due to their antioxidant properties.

Role of Rose in Perfumery and Personal Care

Rose oil and rose water are considered among the most valuable ingredients in perfumery and personal care. Rose essential oil is widely used in the luxury perfume industry due to its high volatility and enduring smell properties. France, Türkiye and Bulgaria are among the world’s leading producers of high-quality rose oil, and these oils serve as fundamental components in the formulations of famous perfume brands.

Rose water and rose extract are used in skincare products for their moisturizing, soothing and regenerative effects. Rose-containing products include facial toners, creams, shampoos and body lotions. Additionally, rose-based cosmetics have anti-aging effects due to their antioxidant properties.

Role of Rose Essential Oils in Functional Foods

In recent years, rose essential oils have been increasingly used in functional food products. Due to their antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties, rose essences have been evaluated across a broad spectrum from healthy beverages to food supplements. Rose oil is used as a natural flavoring agent in some beverages and is included in digestive-supporting products due to its stomach-soothing effects.

Additionally, the use of rose essential oils in sweet and baked goods is increasing. For example, in confectionery and sugar industries, rose aroma is preferred to create unique flavors.

Genetic and Breeding Studies of the Rose

Conservation of Rose Genetic Resources

The rose is a plant group with high genetic diversity, exhibiting wide variation in both wild and cultivated forms. Türkiye possesses a rich geography for wild rose species, with 55 distinct taxon identified across 46 species. Their conservation is of great importance for maintaining sustainable genetic diversity.

To conserve native rose species, seed storage programs are conducted in various botanical gardens and gene banks in Türkiye. In situ and ex situ conservation methods are applied to protect endemic and rare species. To ensure sustainable genetic diversity, monitoring of natural populations and habitat conservation projects are underway in various regions.

Development of New Varieties and Breeding Methods

Various breeding programs are conducted to improve yield and quality in rose cultivation. Within Reform research, new varieties with disease resistance, high yield and superior essential oil content are targeted. In Türkiye, breeding efforts focused on Rosa damascena aim to enhance rose oil production efficiency.

Common breeding methods in rose cultivation include selection, hybridization and mutation breeding. Traditional selection methods involve choosing high-yielding individuals from natural populations to develop new varieties. Controlled crossing studies have also produced disease-resistant and high-oil-content varieties.

Hybridization and Biotechnology Applications

In recent years, biotechnology-assisted rose breeding has gained increasing importance. Alongside traditional breeding methods, tissue culture techniques are used to enhance genetic diversity and develop new disease-resistant varieties. Tissue culture offers significant advantages in conserving rare species and producing high-quality seedlings.

Furthermore, genetic engineering applications are being used to improve traits such as flowering duration, color and essential oil composition in certain rose species. Genetic modification techniques are employed to increase disease resistance and develop rose varieties more resilient to environmental stress factors.