Music Genres

Music is the art of organizing sounds in a specific structure and over time. This organization is based on fundamental elements universally recognized as melody (the sequential arrangement of pitches), rhythm (the pattern and pulse of time), and, in most traditional contexts, harmony (the simultaneous blending of sounds). Additionally, elements such as tempo (speed), dynamics (sound intensity), and timbre (tone color) also define music’s character. Music is described as both an auditory and cognitive phenomenon present in every human society throughout history; it is the concept that unites a simple folk tune with a complex electronic composition under one umbrella. In other words, “music is the meaningful organization of sound (and silence) by human beings”—essentially, a purposefully structured collection of sounds produced by humans. This art form can be vocal (song) or instrumental, and it readily merges with dance or ritual. The concept of form or structure in music refers to the organization of these elements within a cohesive compositional framework. For example, a song follows a specific pattern (such as verse and chorus), while a symphony consists of several movements. Ultimately, music can be summarized as “the art of sound that creates emotional or aesthetic expression through the combination of melody, harmony, rhythm, and timbre within a defined structure.”

While concepts related to music’s fundamental components may vary across cultures, these elements are widely recognized. In Western music theory, scales (major, minor, etc.), tuning, and notation are central, whereas many world music traditions employ different systems such as maqams or ragas. Nevertheless, in every case, music functions as a communicative sound language with the potential to evoke emotional responses in humans. Indeed, since ancient Greek philosophers, music has been recognized for its influence on human emotion and thought; modern science has also demonstrated that music activates reward and emotional centers in the human brain. For instance, when listening to music, regions of the brain such as the hippocampus and amygdala trigger emotions associated with memories, while the limbic system processes feelings of pleasure and reward; simultaneously, the motor cortex engages, leading to an inclination to tap one’s feet or move in time with the rhythm. This multifaceted impact is one reason music is universally regarded as a human experience.

History and Development of Music

The history of music extends back to the dawn of humanity. Archaeological findings have confirmed the existence of musical expressions even in prehistoric times. For example, a flute made from an eagle’s wing bone, discovered in Germany in 2008, has been dated to approximately 40,000 years ago and is recognized as the world’s oldest known musical instrument. Such discoveries suggest that early humans may have produced rhythmic sounds using hollow bones or sticks, possibly for hunting or ritual purposes. Indeed, some Neanderthal remains, such as the Divje Babe flute, contain perforated bones that indicate possible musical instrument use, suggesting that Homo neanderthalensis may have had the capacity to produce simple music. By the late Paleolithic period (circa 40,000–10,000 BCE), the first instruments—including simple flutes, percussion instruments, whistles, and bells—emerged, and hunter-gatherer communities performed music alongside ritual dances. Music likely served primarily a ritual, religious, or communal function; primitive drums, bells, and clappers facilitated rhythmic movement and created shared experiences that brought people together.

In antiquity, music played a central role in nearly every major civilization. It was an inseparable part of daily life as well as religious and ceremonial rituals in Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, India, and Greece. For instance, Sumerian and Egyptian reliefs from around 3000 BCE depict instruments such as harps, lyres, and flutes; early harps and lyres were developed in Mesopotamia. In ancient China, the Shang Dynasty (1600–1100 BCE) tombs yielded flawless bronze chimes and stone xylophones; Confucius attributed philosophical value to music, viewing it as a symbol of social harmony. Ancient Greece made significant contributions to music theory: Pythagoras and his followers defined the earliest musical scales based on string vibration ratios and developed concepts such as the tetrachord and mode. In Greek culture, music (“mousike”) was intertwined with poetry and dance; choral music accompanied tragedies and comedies performed with instruments like the lyre and aulos. Another legacy of the ancient world is modal systems such as maqam and raga: for example, Indian classical music developed from the first millennium BCE based on melodic forms called raga; this tradition lacks harmony but features highly complex melodic and rhythmic structures.

During the Medieval and Renaissance periods, music evolved along divergent paths in the East and West. In Europe, beginning around the 9th century CE, music developed primarily under the auspices of the Christian Church: starting with monophonic Gregorian chants, the first steps toward polyphony emerged from the 12th century onward. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Renaissance music reached its peak with polyphonic vocal compositions; advancements in notation enabled composers to write intricate motets and masses. Meanwhile, in the Ottoman, Persian, and Arab regions, the maqam-based classical music tradition strengthened: great composers in the Ottoman court and Mevlevi dervish lodges produced masterpieces in forms such as peşrev, semai, and şarkı. During this period, Turkish art music and Iranian classical music developed their own unique theoretical systems—such as the edvar tradition and maqam theory—parallel to Western tonal music. In the Islamic world, scholars such as Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and al-Marghīnānī documented music theory; in Al-Andalus and the Middle East, music gained importance both as courtly entertainment and as a vehicle for Sufi spirituality.

The Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods (17th–19th centuries) witnessed major technical and aesthetic advances in European music: in the Baroque era, masters such as Bach and Vivaldi laid the foundations of harmonic language; in the Classical era, Mozart and Haydn established a universal style through symphonies and sonatas; in the Romantic era, composers such as Beethoven, Chopin, and Wagner embraced music as an expression of powerful emotion. Meanwhile, the 19th century marked an era of global musical interaction: Western musical elements spread worldwide, while Western composers—including Russian and European Romantics—were inspired by Eastern music. For example, Mozart incorporated Ottoman mehter rhythms in works such as his “Turkish March”; many operas explored Eastern themes. Ottoman-Turkish music also encountered Western polyphony during this period: the establishment of the Mızıka-ı Hümayun in 1826 and the emergence of composers such as the Turkish Five in the early 20th century marked the initial steps toward Turkish music adopting Western forms.

The 20th century became an era of revolution in music due to technology and globalization: recording technologies enabled music to transcend geographical boundaries and reach mass audiences; radio and the record industry gave rise to popular music genres. In the early decades of the century, jazz and blues emerged from African-American communities and entered the global music scene; in the mid-century, new genres such as rock, pop, soul, and hip-hop shaped global youth culture. Simultaneously, folk music collections were compiled in many countries, preserving local melodies (such as Muzaffer Sarısözen’s collections in Turkey in the 1930s). The invention of electronic music and digital synthesizers—particularly after the 1980s—opened entirely new sonic worlds. Ultimately, 20th-century music flowed along two main streams: on one side, modernist and experimental composers—from Arnold Schönberg to Philip Glass—explored forms as a continuation of classical music; on the other, the popular music industry transformed music into a global commodity and cultural interaction object.

In summary, throughout history, music has continuously transformed within technical, social, and cultural contexts. Technically, instrument making, notation, and recording technologies have changed music; socially, patronage systems (church, court, patrons) and mass media have influenced its production and dissemination. Culturally, each society shaped its own music to reflect its values and emotions, yet music has always functioned as a bridge of communication between cultures.

Cross-Cultural Perception of Music

Although music is a universal human experience, musical perception and values exhibit significant differences across cultures. Its universal aspects lie in the near-universal presence of music in all societies and the shared use of certain fundamental elements: for example, recurring rhythmic patterns, the use of pitch variation to create melody, and the presence of lullaby-like soothing melodies in parent-infant communication are similar across cultures. Indeed, music is even regarded by some as a natural cognitive ability akin to language—some researchers suggest that musical aptitude may have evolutionary origins. Studies on infants have found that even before exposure to any cultural training, babies pay longer attention to consonant intervals than dissonant ones; this suggests that the perception of pleasing intervals may have a biological basis. As renowned musicologist John Blacking stated, “music is sound organized by humans”—every human society exhibits a tendency to organize sounds meaningfully, indicating music’s place in human nature.

On the other hand, culturally specific aspects are highly evident. Different societies define what music is and how it should be made according to their own value systems. For instance, in some indigenous African languages, music and dance are inseparable, and the concept of “music” as an independent entity may not even exist. Similarly, in the Islamic world, Quranic recitation may sound to Western ears like a maqam-based song, yet Muslims do not refer to it as music, because the term “music” is associated with entertainment, and applying it to sacred expression is considered inappropriate. These examples demonstrate that the definition and perception of music cannot be separated from cultural context.

Cultural differences are especially apparent in musical preferences and emotional interpretations. Some sound combinations considered dissonant in Western ears may be perceived as pleasant in other cultures. A 2016 study with the Tsimané people of the Amazon basin—who had no exposure to Western music—found that they showed no preference for consonant or dissonant harmonic intervals, perceiving them as equally pleasant (or neutral). In contrast, urban Bolivian and U.S. participants clearly preferred consonant intervals. This finding indicates that the perception of consonance and dissonance in music is not biologically fixed but shaped by cultural experience. Similarly, while major scales are commonly perceived as cheerful and minor scales as melancholic in the West, emotional associations in other modal systems can be entirely different. For example, in Turkish music, the Hüzzam maqam is associated with sadness, while the Rast maqam is perceived as joyful—but these associations are familiar only to listeners within that culture.

The effects of music on the brain and emotions have also been studied cross-culturally. Universally, music can trigger physiological responses in listeners—for example, “goosebumps.” The release of dopamine in the brain while listening to a favorite piece of music is a consistent response across all humans and forms the neurological basis of the pleasure derived from music. However, the specific emotions music evokes can vary according to cultural expectations. For instance, fast-tempo, rhythmically emphasized music is often associated with dance and excitement in many cultures, while slow-tempo, narrow-interval melodies may evoke sadness—but these generalizations are not universally valid. Ethnomusicology examines the meanings different societies assign to music and the emotions, identities, and rituals expressed through it, revealing this diversity.

In conclusion, musical perception is shaped by the interaction between the universal processing capabilities of the human brain and cultural learning. Every human brain can process fundamental elements such as rhythm and pitch; however, the meanings assigned to these elements and the ways they elicit responses are largely culturally dependent. Therefore, while music is often described as a “universal language,” each culture also possesses its own “musical language.” This dual nature makes music both a bridge between different societies and a unique medium for expressing each community’s distinct identity.

Musical Genres

Throughout its historical and regional development, music has diversified into numerous genres and subgenres. Broadly, musical genres are classified according to their cultural context, techniques used, or functional roles. Below is a list of major musical genres and subgenres identified globally and in Türkiye, accompanied by brief, objective definitions:

• Western Classical Music: A European-originated tradition of art music. This genre, which developed from around the 9th century CE, began with medieval church chants and extended through the Baroque, Classical, Romantic, and Modern periods. It is characterized by notation-based composition techniques, polyphony, and advanced harmony. It includes forms such as symphony, concerto, sonata, and opera, and is performed strictly according to the composer’s written score. Western classical music has formed the foundation of global music education and has been regarded as an aesthetic ideal for centuries.

• Turkish Art Music (Classical Turkish Music): A tradition of Turkish classical music inherited from the Ottoman Empire, based on the maqam system. This music, developed through traditional rhythmic patterns (usul) and maqams, has accumulated a rich repertoire over centuries. It is performed on traditional instruments such as the ud, kanun, ney, tambur, and kemençe and primarily consists of compositions set to classical poetic forms. Also known as Ottoman court music, this genre is recognized as one of the world’s three great classical music traditions alongside Indian and Western classical music, due to its continuity and theoretical depth. Compositions are written in specific maqams, each with its own unique emotional expression. Turkish art music has been preserved into the present day through conservatories established during the Republican era.

• Indian Classical Music: A traditional art music system unique to South Asia, developed in two main schools—North Indian Hindustani and South Indian Karnatic. It is based on the raga (specific melodic frameworks and sequences) and tala (rhythmic cycles) systems. It typically features extended improvisations and is performed on instruments such as the sitar, sarod, tabla, mridangam, and veena, or vocally. Harmony is not used; music is monophonic or drone-supported, yet contains highly complex melodic and rhythmic structures. Originating in ancient Vedic chants, Indian classical music has survived to the present through a strict guru-shishya (master-disciple) tradition. Thanks to the raga system, each performance carries an improvisational quality, placing the performer’s mastery at the forefront.

• Traditional (Folkloric) Folk Music: A general term for musical traditions transmitted orally from generation to generation, reflecting a community’s shared cultural heritage. Folk music pieces are typically anonymous and address themes such as daily life, nature, love, mourning, and heroism. They feature simple melodic structures and repetitions, making them suitable for communal singing or playing. Each region may have its own unique melodic patterns, instruments, and stylistic features. For example, Irish folk music is known for lively dance tunes played on fiddle and bagpipes, while Japanese folk music features long ballads accompanied by the shamisen. Folk music traditions were recorded through collection efforts in the 20th century and have been preserved as integral parts of many nations’ identities.

• Turkish Folk Music: A traditional musical genre composed of anonymous folk songs, long melodies, and dance tunes from various regions of Türkiye. It includes both vocal and instrumental melodies, performed with regional instruments such as the bağlama, kabak kemane, zurna, davul, and kaval. Having been transmitted orally for hundreds of years, it exhibits rich regional variations. Turkish folk music melodies are not based on maqams but on modal structures, often featuring pentatonic or heptatonic scales. It is divided into two main categories: long melody (free-rhythm ağıt/bozlak style) and broken melody (metered dance tunes). Turkish folk music expresses the community’s sorrows, joys, natural environment, and social events; for example, an ağıt, a halay, or a hoyrat reflects the cultural character of its region of origin. Thousands of collected folk songs were transcribed and added to TRT’s repertoire during the Republican era.

• Dance Tunes: Energetic instrumental melodies that accompany Turkish folk dances (folkloric dances). In the broadest sense, “dance tune” refers to music performed specifically for folk dancing and entertainment. Each region of Türkiye has its own distinctive dance tunes: for example, the music of the karşılama in Thrace, the zeybek in the Aegean, the horon in the Black Sea, and the halay in the East differ in rhythm and structure. Dance tunes are typically played with the davul-zurna pair or with instruments such as the bağlama and kemençe; they may be instrumental or include short lyrical phrases related to the dance. These musical forms, performed collectively during weddings, festivals, and other occasions, are vital components of regional culture and are passed down through generations.

• Pop Music: A general term for modern, commercially oriented music aimed at broad audiences. Also known as “popular music,” its goal is to be easily embraced by as wide a listening public as possible. It has spread through urban culture and technology; it is generally produced by professional composers and does not follow the anonymous evolutionary process typical of folk music. Pop music, which developed alongside youth culture from the mid-20th century (1950s onward), is characterized by simple, memorable melodies, repetitive structures (choruses), and the use of modern instruments. Subgenres under the pop umbrella include dance-pop and synth-pop. Artists such as Michael Jackson and Madonna have become icons of this genre worldwide. Pop music is a flexible format capable of incorporating elements from other genres and occupies the center of the global music industry.

• Rock Music: A popular music genre originating in the United States in the 1950s, known for its strong rhythmic drive and electric guitar-centered sound. Evolving from rock and roll, this music features a prominent 4/4 rhythm and a backbeat accent (emphasis on the second and fourth beats). It first emerged in the 1950s with pioneers such as Elvis Presley and Chuck Berry and spread globally in the 1960s through bands like The Beatles and The Rolling Stones. Rock became the voice of youth culture and by the end of the 20th century had become the world’s dominant popular music form. Subgenres include hard rock, punk rock, and alternative rock. Over time, rock music has become not only a musical genre but also a lifestyle and a symbol of counterculture.

• Heavy Metal: A subgenre of rock music that developed in the 1970s, distinguished by heavily amplified, distorted electric guitar “power chords,” aggressive rhythms, and powerful vocals. It aims for a strong and intense sound. Heavy metal first gained its identity through British and American bands such as Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin, and Deep Purple; it achieved global popularity in the 1980s through bands like Iron Maiden and Metallica. Lyrics often address social criticism, fantasy themes, or inner turmoil; the musical structure relies on technical virtuosity (such as fast guitar solos). Heavy metal has since branched into numerous subgenres including thrash, death, power, and black metal, creating a distinct youth subculture worldwide.

• Punk Music (Punk Rock): An aggressive rock genre that emerged in the mid-1970s in the UK and the US, summarized by the slogan “three chords and an uprising.” Punk sought to respond to long, complex rock compositions by producing short, fast, high-energy pieces. Loud guitars, rapid drumming, and often politically or socially charged rebellious lyrics are emphasized. It became an international movement between 1975 and 1980; bands such as Sex Pistols, The Clash, and Ramones became symbols of punk. Punk music influenced youth subculture not only musically but also ideologically and aesthetically—anti-authoritarianism, the “do-it-yourself” (DIY) philosophy, and raw, simple musicality are key components. Later subgenres such as new wave, post-punk, and hardcore emerged from punk.

• Jazz: A musical genre that originated in the late 19th century in New Orleans among African-American communities, based on improvisation and swing rhythm. Jazz developed from a synthesis of European harmonic structures and African-derived rhythmic and melodic elements. Typical features include syncopated rhythms, polyphonic collective improvisation (especially in early jazz), blue notes (flattened third and seventh scale degrees influenced by blues), and distinctive instrumental timbres (such as “bends” and “glissandos” on trumpet or saxophone). Jazz emerged from ragtime and blues; throughout the 20th century, it evolved through swing, bebop, fusion, and other phases. Legendary jazz artists such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Charlie Parker, and Miles Davis represent different eras of the genre. Improvisation is the soul of jazz: each performer adds their own spontaneous interpretation to a basic piece. Therefore, “jazz” cannot be rigidly defined; it is a continuously evolving, living genre.

• Blues: A deeply emotional folk music genre created in the late 19th century by African-descended Americans in the southern United States. The word “blues” means “melancholy,” and this musical form expresses the pain, longing, and hopes of Black communities after slavery. Musically, it typically features a 12-bar structure and a distinctive harmonic progression (I-IV-V chords). Its melodic style is distinguished by the addition of “blue notes”—flattened third and seventh scale degrees—to Western major-minor scales. Early blues songs often followed a call-and-response format, with vocal and guitar interaction. Legendary singers such as Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith recorded the “classic blues” style in the 1920s. Blues has formed the foundation of many genres, including jazz and rock’n’roll. With its mournful lyrics and heartfelt performances, blues has become a universal vehicle for emotional expression; later, the addition of electric guitar led to subgenres such as Chicago blues and rhythm & blues (R&B) with faster rhythms.

• Rhythm and Blues (R&B) and Soul: R&B: An Afro-American popular music style that emerged in the 1940s in the US from the fusion of blues, jazz, and gospel. Originally called “race music,” this style targeted urban Black audiences with danceable blues forms. Characteristic features include a strong rhythmic pulse (often backbeat-driven 4/4 tempo), energetic arrangements featuring piano or horns, and spirited vocals. In the late 1950s, soul music emerged from R&B, blending the spiritual energy of gospel with the secular emotions of R&B. Soul rose to prominence in the 1960s through Motown and Stax record labels; it became synonymous with artists such as James Brown, Aretha Franklin, and Ray Charles. Soul music is known for its intense emotional expression (powerful, soulful vocals, including vocal cries) and an “earthy” attitude. Today, the term R&B also refers to the modern continuation of the R&B and soul traditions (modern R&B). These genres have formed the core of the Afro-American musical heritage and laid the groundwork for pop, funk, and hip-hop.

• Hip Hop (Rap): A cultural movement that emerged in the late 1970s among African-American youth in urban neighborhoods of the US (particularly New York’s Bronx). Musically, it is based on the element of rap—rhythmic spoken delivery. It originated when DJs from funk and disco records created beats and MCs recited rhythmic poetry over them. Hip hop is not only music but also a subculture encompassing breakdance, graffiti, and DJing. In rap music, fast, socially, politically, or personally themed lyrics are delivered over hard 4/4 beats. From the 1980s onward, artists such as Public Enemy, N.W.A, Tupac, The Notorious B.I.G., and Jay-Z brought it into the mainstream, exerting massive influence on global youth. In Türkiye, the rap wave began with Cartel in the 1990s and has since gained popularity. Hip hop music distinguishes itself through its rhythmic vocal technique and poetic narrative; today, it is increasingly interwoven with pop music, pioneering numerous hybrid genres.

• Country (Country & Western): An American popular music genre that originated in the early 20th century in the rural southern and western regions of the US, based on European folk music traditions (Appalachian ballads, Celtic melodies). Initially known as “hillbilly music,” country is typically performed with acoustic guitar, fiddle, banjo, mandolin, and pedal steel. Its lyrics address everyday life, love, nostalgia for home, and the hardships of rural living, with a melancholic yet sincere narrative style. In the 1920s, pioneers such as Jimmie Rodgers and The Carter Family reached wide audiences through the record industry; the term “country & western” was officially adopted by the music industry in the 1940s. From the 1950s onward, centered in Nashville, country became a major industry, branching into subgenres such as honky-tonk, bluegrass, outlaw country, and pop-country. Artists such as Johnny Cash, Dolly Parton, and Willie Nelson are icons of the genre. Country music has become one of the symbolic musical expressions of American culture through its simplicity and sincerity.

• Jazz Blues: (See the entries for “Jazz” and “Blues” above; jazz and blues are Afro-American-origin genres that form the foundation of popular music.)

• Reggae: A popular music genre that emerged in Jamaica in the late 1960s and quickly became the country’s dominant music. Reggae evolved from its predecessors ska and rocksteady. Its defining feature is the emphasis on off-beat rhythms (on the second and fourth beats of each measure), creating a “reverse rhythm” feel. The bass guitar is played prominently, functioning as the main melodic instrument; drums and rhythmic guitar/organ provide repetitive motif patterns around it. Reggae music addresses themes such as social inequality, poverty, and Rastafarian beliefs in its lyrics; Bob Marley is the genre’s most prominent global representative. In the 1970s, Marley and other Jamaican artists gave reggae global impact; it is remembered as the music of peace, freedom, and resistance. With its rhythmic structure and spiritual message, reggae has given birth to subgenres such as ska, dub, and dancehall and has deeply influenced Caribbean and African music.

• Electronic Music (EDM): Short for Electronic Dance Music, this is a broad spectrum of music produced since the 1980s using electronic instruments and computers, developed within nightclub culture. EDM is not a single genre but encompasses numerous styles ranging from ambient to hardcore techno at 200 BPM. House, techno, trance, drum and bass, and dubstep are among the best-known subgenres under this umbrella. Common features include intensive use of synthesized sounds, strong and repetitive rhythmic beats, and structures designed for DJ performances rather than traditional song forms. EDM tracks are typically produced for DJs to mix in nightclubs, with seamless transitions and beat continuity being essential. Live instruments or vocals may be used but are usually decorative. EDM culture originated in the 1980s in Chicago and Detroit with house and techno, expanded through the European rave movement in the 1990s, and became mainstream worldwide in the 21st century. Today, electronic elements are widespread in pop music production.

• Arabesk: A musical style that emerged in mid-20th century Türkiye, synthesizing Eastern and Western musical elements and often centered on melancholic themes. Arabesk music combines the maqam and usul elements of Turkish folk and Turkish art music with melodic motifs from Egyptian/Arabic music, adding pop and rock instruments to create a unique style. Its lyrics typically address pessimism, fatalism, impossible love, and poverty; arabesk songs carry intense emotional expression, conveying the people’s struggles and inner world. Artists such as Orhan Gencebay, Ferdi Tayfur, and Müslüm Gürses are iconic representatives of arabesk. From the 1960s to the 1980s, arabesk appealed to mass audiences in Türkiye; initially dismissed as “low culture,” it eventually penetrated every social stratum and became the most popular music genre for a time. Instruments such as strings, bağlama, and keyboards are used together; a heavy, melodramatic style dominates. Sociologically, arabesk is also viewed as an urban folk music that voiced the emotions of those migrating from villages to cities.

• Fantasy Music: A Turkish popular music style that developed from the 1980s onward, gaining popularity especially in taverns. Fantasy music is based on performing classical Turkish art music forms and maqams in a simpler, more modern, and ornamental style. Its defining features are singers’ expressive, vibrato-heavy, and wide-ranging vocal interpretations and their addition of unique personal interpretations to compositions. In this sense, it is a softened, more accessible version of the rigidly rule-bound Turkish art music tradition. Thematic content usually revolves around love, separation, and pain, overlapping with arabesk; however, fantasy music is less pessimistic than arabesk and sometimes includes playful, entertaining pieces. Artists such as Emel Sayın, Nejat Alp, Ümit Besen, and Cengiz Kurtoğlu were leading performers of fantasy music in the 1980s; in the 1990s, this genre merged with pop music and continued. Today, under the label “arabesk-fantasy,” it remains alive as a genre blending emotional and playful pieces.

• Ska: Originating in Jamaica in the late 1950s, ska was shaped by the fusion of American jazz and rhythm & blues with Caribbean rhythms. Recognized as the precursor to reggae, it is characterized by off-beat guitar strokes, fast tempo, and prominent brass instruments. In the 1970s, the “2 Tone Ska” movement in England, influenced by immigrant workers, blended punk and ska elements through bands such as The Specials and Madness. In the 1990s, the “ska punk” subgenre developed in the US, represented by bands such as Reel Big Fish, Sublime, and No Doubt.

• Dub: An experimental genre that emerged in Jamaica in the late 1960s through studio remixing of reggae tracks. Sound engineers such as Lee “Scratch” Perry and King Tubby pushed vocals into the background and created new atmospheres using echo, reverb, and bass-heavy foundations. This innovative approach led to the birth of “dub reggae” and inspired later genres such as electronic dance music, ambient, and trip-hop. Mad Professor and Scientist played influential roles in the development of digital dub.

• Dancehall: Emerged in Jamaica in the 1980s as a digitalized and accelerated version of reggae. This genre emphasizes aggressive rhythms and direct lyrics, with DJs (deejays) delivering rapid vocal chants (toasting) over rhythmic patterns (riddims). With heavy use of electronic backing, subgenres such as ragga (rap-influenced) emerged. Key figures in dancehall include Shabba Ranks, Beenie Man, and Vybz Kartel. Since the 2000s, artists such as Sean Paul and Popcaan have brought it global popularity.

• Afrobeats: A modern pop genre developed from the 2000s in Nigeria and Ghana, combining West African rhythms with hip-hop, R&B, and electronic music. It should not be confused with Afrobeat; this new genre is more digital, dance-oriented, and geared toward the global market. Represented by artists such as Wizkid, Burna Boy, Davido, and Tiwa Savage, its subgenres include afropop, afrohouse, and alte (alternative Afrobeats).

• Afrobeat: Developed in the 1970s by Fela Kuti, Afrobeat fused Nigerian traditional rhythms with funk, jazz, and psychedelic rock to create long, dance-oriented compositions with political messages. Fela Kuti’s music, woven with extended instrumental passages and rhythmic accents, addressed post-colonial social injustices in Africa. His son Femi Kuti and Tony Allen have continued the tradition. Subgenres of Afrobeat include more rhythmic “Afrojazz” and Western-influenced “Afrofunk.”

• Tango: A dance and music genre that emerged in the late 19th century in port cities of Argentina and Uruguay through the interaction of European immigrants and local communities. Defined by the bandoneon, tango is known for its emotional intensity and intimate couple choreography. Over time, it branched into subgenres such as classical, salon (salón), and nuevo tango. Carlos Gardel, Astor Piazzolla, and Osvaldo Pugliese are among the most important figures of the genre.

• Flamenco: A traditional expression originating in Spain’s Andalusia region, born from the synthesis of Arab, Berber, Gypsy (Roma), and Jewish cultures. It combines guitar (toque), song (cante), and dance (baile). Since the 19th century, flamenco has been performed professionally on stage and evolved into modern interpretations such as “nuevo flamenco.” Paco de Lucía, Camarón de la Isla, and Vicente Amigo are leading flamenco artists.

• Zydeco: A dance-oriented music genre originating from Creole (mixed French-African) communities in Louisiana, blending blues, Cajun, R&B, and folk music. It is performed with traditional instruments such as the accordion and washboard. Popularized in the mid-20th century by Clifton Chenier, zydeco is now represented by artists such as Buckwheat Zydeco and Terrance Simien.

• Klezmer: A traditional Jewish music genre performed at weddings and holidays in Eastern Europe. It creates joyful yet melancholic melodies using instruments such as clarinet, violin, and accordion. Originating from village musicians in the 19th century, this genre gained jazz and swing influences after Jewish musicians migrated to the US in the 20th century. Modern klezmer representatives include The Klezmatics and Giora Feidman.

• Gospel: A Christian music genre originating in the Afro-American church tradition, featuring powerful vocals and choirs with spiritual lyrics. It developed in the early 20th century under blues and ragtime influences and later impacted soul, R&B, and even hip-hop. Key figures in gospel include Mahalia Jackson, Kirk Franklin, and Andraé Crouch. Subgenres include southern gospel, urban contemporary gospel, and black gospel.

• Chanson: A French musical tradition characterized by songs in which lyrics take center stage, carrying literary and lyrical elements. This genre, inherited from medieval troubadours, became popular in the 20th century through artists such as Edith Piaf, Jacques Brel, and Charles Aznavour. The “chanson réaliste” (realist chanson) subgenre focuses on social issues, while “nouvelle chanson” blends alternative elements since the 1990s.

• Schlager: A light music genre popular in German-speaking countries, consisting of easily digestible songs primarily about love and daily life. It spread in the 1950s in Germany and Austria as radio-friendly music. Contemporary representatives include Helene Fischer, Roland Kaiser, and Andrea Berg. It has become part of German pop culture through subgenres such as “Euro-Schlager” and “Party-Schlager.”

• Enka: A genre developed in mid-20th century Japan, blending traditional Japanese melodies with Western-influenced melodies. Emotional themes focus on love and nostalgia. The singing technique emphasizes group vocals and vibrato-rich delivery. Hibari Misora, Jero, and Saburo Kitajima are well-known enka artists. It remains popular among Japan’s older generations.

• Qawwali: A devotional music form performed in South Asia, particularly in Pakistan and India, within the Sufi tradition. These extended religious songs, sung with harmonium, tabla, and hand clapping, aim to induce spiritual ecstasy. This genre, performed since the 13th century, gained international recognition through Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan. Subgenres include “hamd,” “naat,” and “manqabat.”

• Tuvan Throat Singing: A technique developed in the Tuva region of Siberia, where a single person produces multiple pitches simultaneously. This musical form imitates natural sounds and reflects pastoral life and spirituality. Substyles include “khoomei,” “sygyt,” and “kargyraa.” Groups such as Huun-Huur-Tu and Alash Ensemble have introduced this tradition to the world.

• Lo-fi Hip Hop / Chillhop: A subgenre that emerged on internet platforms from the 2010s, characterized by simple drum beats, jazz harmonies, and low-fidelity (lo-fi) sound recordings. It has become widely used as background music (study beats). Subgenres include jazzhop, chillwave, and vaporhop. Leading figures in this style include Lofi Girl, Jinsang, and Nujabes.

• Industrial: A genre that emerged in the 1970s with groups such as Throbbing Gristle and Einstürzende Neubauten, using machine sounds, electronic noise, and distorted vocals as musical expression. In the 1990s, the “industrial rock/metal” subgenre developed through bands such as Nine Inch Nails, Ministry, and Rammstein. Other subgenres include post-industrial and power noise.

• New Age: A genre that developed in the 1980s alongside meditation, yoga, and spiritual relaxation practices, aiming to create a calm atmosphere with nature sounds, synthesizers, and ethnic instruments. Representatives include Enigma, Kitaro, and Yanni. Subgenres include ambient new age, ethnic new age, and neoclassical new age.

• Gregorian Chant: Monophonic religious hymns performed in Latin in medieval Catholic churches. This musical tradition, attributed to Pope Gregory I from the 6th century onward, shaped Christian liturgy in Western Europe. In modern times, groups such as Capella Gregoriana have reinterpreted this music.

• Turkish Rap / Turkish Rap: Turkish rap began among expatriate youth in Germany in the 1990s and became known in Türkiye through Cartel, expanding with artists such as Ceza, Sagopa Kajmer, Fuat, and Ayben. Since the 2010s, artists such as Ezhel, Ben Fero, and Uzi have brought it into the mainstream. It covers a wide thematic range from social issues to personal narratives and has diversified into subgenres such as drill, trap, and boom bap.

• Turkish Rock: Developed from the 1960s onward with artists such as Erkin Koray, Barış Manço, and Cem Karaca in the Anatolian rock form. In the 1990s, bands such as Duman, Mor ve Ötesi, and Manga strengthened the alternative rock scene. Today, rock music has merged with pop music and continues through independent bands and festivals. Subgenres include alternative rock, indie rock, and progressive rock.

• Anatolian Rock: Originated in the 1970s from the synthesis of Western rock music and Turkish folk music. Pioneers of this genre include Moğollar, Erkin Koray, and Barış Manço. Folk instruments such as saz and bağlama were combined with electric guitar and drums to create a hybrid form.

• Turkish Electronic Music / Alternative Electronic: The electronic music scene developed from the 1990s onward, particularly forming an underground club culture in the 2000s with DJs and producers. Artists such as Oceanvs Orientalis, İlhan Erşahin, Ah! Kosmos, and Islandman have gained international recognition. Production occurs in subgenres such as house, downtempo, and ambient.

• Turkish Alternative Pop: A genre that rose after 2010, standing apart from mainstream pop with more experimental, lyrical, or minimalist production. Artists such as Melike Şahin, Gaye Su Akyol, Evdeki Saat, and Yüzyüzeyken Konuşuruz are active in this scene. It carries an “indie pop” identity popularized through platforms such as Spotify and YouTube.

• Trap / Turkish Trap: Turkish adaptations of American trap music became widespread among the younger generation from the mid-2010s. Artists such as Ezhel, Uzi, Motive, and Murda gained prominence with auto-tune, hard beats, and street lyrics. Subgenres such as drill and cloud rap have also made an impact in Türkiye.

• Taverna Music / 90s Turkish Slow Pop: A genre originating from taverna culture and highly popular in the 1980s–90s, characterized by romantic themes and arrangements dominated by keyboards and strings. Figures such as Ferdi Özbeğen, Nejat Alp, and Cengiz Kurtoğlu are symbols of the taverna-fantasy fusion music. It still retains its nostalgic appeal.

• Arabesk-Rock: A genre born from the fusion of arabesk emotion and rock music, emerging notably after the 2000s and represented by artists such as Halil Sezai, Hayko Cepkin, and Haluk Levent. It is defined by heavy guitars, introspective lyrics, and dramatic vocal techniques.

• Turkish Funk / Turkish Disco (Anatolian Funk): A genre shaped in the 1970s–80s, particularly in Istanbul’s nightlife, combining Anatolian melodies with funk/disco backdrops. Today, it has regained popularity abroad as “psychedelic Turkish funk” in DJ sets. Artists such as Mustafa Özkent, Okay Temiz, and Barış Manço can be evaluated within this lineage; it was rediscovered in the 2010s by artists such as Hey! Douglas.