Ottoman Sultan Robes

Ottoman sultans’ kaftans were garments far beyond mere clothing; they were symbolic and artistically valuable attire reflecting the empire’s power, grandeur, wealth and the sultans’ personal tastes. These kaftans were not simply garments but works of art and historical documents in their own right, distinguished by the precious fabrics used, intricate craftsmanship, striking colors and motifs each carrying unique meanings. Worn both as inner and outer wear, kaftans became an essential component of Ottoman court protocol, expressing the sultan’s status and preferences during ceremonies, audiences and daily life. Additionally, kaftans known as “hil’at” were bestowed by the sultan upon state officials, envoys and individuals who rendered services as tokens of favor, appreciation and honor.

Fatih Sultan Mehmet’s Fur Kaftan (AA)

Origin and Definition

The word “kaftan” is often traced to the Persian “haftan,” while the Arabic term “khilat,” meaning garment of honor, was also used for such attire. According to Ahmet Vefik Paşa, the Persian “haftan” actually derives from the Turkish “kaptan.” In Iran, the kaftan was known as a cotton war garment, sometimes lined with raw silk. As per Asım Efendi, this garment corresponded to the armor known as “kalmaki” in Turkistan and “çukal” in Anatolia. In Chagatai Turkish, the word was pronounced “kaptan,” and this form also appeared in Mamluk Turkish. Kaşgarlı Mahmud’s references to kaftans indicate their deep historical roots. These sources also reveal that kaftans had sleeves and buttons.

In general definition, a kaftan is a long, ornate upper garment made of silk fabric. This loose-fitting garment had an open front and sleeves that could be either short or long. Those lined on the inside were called “kapama,” short-sleeved upper kaftans were termed “salari,” and woolen ones were known as “çekrek kapa.” Short jackets resembling upper garments were also called “çekrek.”

Purpose and Symbolic Value

In the Ottoman Empire, kaftans functioned as a form of uniform worn by sultans in their daily lives and particularly during official duties. These garments embodied the empire’s power and prestige. As symbols of status, kaftans acquired formal significance in both court circles and male attire, and were also used by women as indicators of wealth and social standing. Sultans regarded kaftans as emblems of authority and presented them as gifts to other rulers as tokens of honor.

Kaftans known as “hil’at” were especially bestowed upon individuals to be honored. The sultan would gift garments made of fine fabric or fur to high-ranking officials, beginning with the grand vizier, upon their appointment to office, promotion in rank or in recognition of meritorious service. Hil’ats were graded according to their value and bore different names; the term “hil’at-i fahire” denoted exceptionally valuable gifts. These garments were presented on various occasions such as the visit of a prince or envoy, the commencement of a military campaign, court celebrations or religious holidays. The color and quality of hil’ats were typically determined by the recipient’s position or the degree of honor intended to be conveyed. Hil’ats were an indispensable part of Ottoman court life.

In sultan’s attire, the powers represented by the sultan were symbolized through the fabric patterns on the kaftans. Motifs such as the sun and moon signified the Prophet, the sultan as his representative, or God and the sultan as the caliph’s representative. The tulip motif could be rearranged using Arabic letters to spell “Allah.” The leopard stripe and pomegranate seed motifs, used on thrones and sultans’ kaftans, were seen as symbols of power. The three-dot “çintemani” motif symbolized “power,” “might” and “sovereignty.”

Some sultans’ kaftans and shirts were woven with talismanic and coded inscriptions. These garments were specially prepared with verses from the Qur’an, hadiths and symbols intended to ensure victory in battle, protection from the evil eye and healing. The production of these talismanic shirts began and ended at the most auspicious hour of the lunar cycle.

Construction and Material Properties

Ottoman sultans’ kaftans had a simple, T-shaped, loose and comfortable cut. With a very wide body measurement, they were further expanded below the waist by triangular panels known as “peş.” Typically open at the front, the lower edges of kaftans often featured slits on either side or at the center back. Their patterns generally consisted of rectangular and triangular pieces. To avoid waste of precious fabric, the pattern pieces were not cut as whole units but subdivided within themselves.

The fabrics used for kaftans were among the most characteristic products of Ottoman textile art and, as diplomatic gifts, represented Ottoman power in the eyes of foreigners. These fabrics, specially woven for the sultan and court members, were known as “saray kumaşları.” They surpassed other fabrics in ornamentation and richness of materials. The main fabrics used in sultans’ garments were atlas, çatma, seraser, serenk, selimiye, kemha and gezi. Many other fabrics such as tafta, diba, zerbaft, hatâi, aba, çuha, canfes, kutnu and bürümcük were also employed.

• Atlas: A tightly woven, smooth, stiff and glossy fabric made of fine silk. Usually woven in red, sultans’ kaftans most commonly favored red, blue and green colors.

• Seraser: A fabric woven with silk warp and weft threads of gold-alloyed silver or pure silver. It was among the most valuable hil’ats in Ottoman protocol. The finest examples were known to be woven on looms attached to the palace in Istanbul.

• Kemha: A luxurious, stiff and expensive fabric woven with silk, silver and gold threads. Frequently found in kaftans.

• Kadife: A pile fabric with both warp and weft made of silk. Production began in Bursa from the mid-15th century.

• Çatma: A variety of velvet distinguished by higher pile. The ground is silk, while patterns or decorations are raised in relief.

• Gezi: A lively fabric with silk warp and a weft of silk and thread mixtures. The fabric’s luster was achieved by pressing and rubbing it between two heated rollers after weaving.

• Çuha: A plain, dull and sturdy fabric woven from woolen yarns of carded wool.

• Sof: Woven in Ankara and Tosya from fine-spun tiftik wool.

• Selimiye: A fabric with silk warp and weft, typically featuring longitudinal stripes and small floral patterns. Produced from the 18th century onward during the reign of Sultan Selim III.

Specialized tailors employed by the sultan were responsible for the construction of kaftans. In the 17th century, Istanbul had 105 tailors specializing in this craft. Great care was taken during sewing to ensure that patterns aligned seamlessly, demonstrating the tailors’ mastery.

Ornamentation and Motifs

Ottoman sultans’ kaftans also held great significance through their patterns and motifs. Major botanical motifs include rumi, palmette, hatâi, lotus, tulip, carnation, hyacinth, rose, pomegranate, apple, saz style, Turkish rococo, plane leaf, dagger leaf, pine cone, tree and chark-ı felek. While animal figures also appear on fabrics, botanical motifs were by far the most commonly used.

Arrangements of motifs on fabric included swirling, staggered, stacked, horizontal and ribbon-like compositions. Designs were drawn by palace artists on scaled paper to align precisely with the fabric’s width and length.

• 14th Century: Large pine cones, plane leaves and pomegranate motifs were characteristic. Less stylized examples of flowers such as rose, carnation and violet were also seen.

• 15th Century: The most important motifs were leopard spots and tiger stripes, heavily used on çatma fabrics. Towards the end of the century, botanical motifs became more dominant and designs grew smaller.

• 16th Century: Tulip, carnation, cloud and three-dot (çintemani) crescent motifs reached their finest expressions. Carnation was especially prevalent, taking on a stylized fan shape (“Yelpazeli Karanfil”). Kaftans woven in the saz style were among the masterpieces of this period.

• 17th Century: Tulip motifs appeared less frequently and changed in form, while carnation motifs increased. Oval medallions decorated with naturalistic floral compositions were used.

• 18th and 19th Centuries: Western influences became prominent. Floral bouquets covering the surface and large fan-shaped carnations drew attention. Tulip motifs were abundantly used during the Tulip Era.

Various techniques were employed in decorating kaftans:

• Quilting (Capitonné, Fr. capitonné): Used in winter kaftans, this technique involved padding the interior with cotton and adding longitudinal hand-stitching. It provided warmth and aesthetic appeal. For instance, fine hand-stitched quilting on some atlas kaftans created longitudinal striped patterns while imparting a soft texture to the fabric.

• Appliqué: This technique was used not only to decorate kaftan fabrics but also their linings. Two types were applied: “oturtma” and “kakma oturtma.” In “oturtma,” motifs were made by sewing pieces of plain, differently colored fabric onto a plain background. In “kakma oturtma,” motifs were cut from the background fabric, turned inward at the edges and sewn onto a contrasting underlying fabric. Rumi motifs on the lining of a Şehzade Korkut kaftan and square corner decorations on some 15th–16th century kaftans were created using appliqué.

• Lining and Facing Decorations: High-quality kaftans achieved greater aesthetic appeal through decorative linings and facings. Even unlined kaftans always featured facings. Linings and facings commonly used atlas, canfes or tafta fabrics in vivid colors. An example exists of a black çuha kaftan with ornately cut collar and slit facings, edged with narrow yellow woven braid.

• Fur Decorations: Kaftans lined with fur, known as “kapaniçe,” were covered with fur to provide warmth and an opulent appearance. Valuable furs such as sable, marten and vaşak (foyum) were preferred. In one example of a kapaniçe, the tails of the fur were left intact, a notable feature.

• Narrow Woven Bands, Çaprast, İlmek Birit and Buttons: Ottoman kaftans were decorated with ibrişim cords, narrow woven bands, çaprast, ilmek birit and buttons. In some lined kaftans, the junctions between lining and facing were adorned with silk ibrişim cords or narrow woven bands. In unlined kaftans, the seams between pattern pieces were covered with narrow woven bands. Çaprast consisted of two thin woven bands on either side, ending on the right with buttons and on the left with loops. Craftsmen who made these decorations were called “kazzaz.” Narrow woven bands made with the çarpana loom were used not only on front closures but also on sleeve ends.

• Embroidery: Embroidery, a hallmark of lavish living especially in the 15th and 16th centuries, was prominently featured on ceremonial kaftans. The front closure, collar and sleeve edges of a Şehzade Mehmet ceremonial kaftan were adorned with gold thread embroidery. Palace artisans known as “Cemaat-i Zerduzan-ı Hassa” practiced embroidery using gold and silver threads or klaptan.

• Printing: Alongside valuable woven fabrics, plain textiles were decorated with printing, stitching or appliqué. In printed kaftan examples, atlas fabric was most commonly chosen. This technique produced detailed patterns such as parallel lines, stripes, belts, trees, peacock feathers, stars, tulips, leaves and rosettes. The facings of kaftans were also often printed, typically with linear designs. Gold and silver printing was another printing method. The production of moiré fabric (Fr. Moiré, Ar. mukhayyar) was also achieved through printing.

Types and Cuts of Kaftans

Kaftans were woven in two types: inner and outer. Inner kaftans were buttoned to the waist, had closed skirts, narrow long sleeves and fit closely to the body. Outer kaftans, typically ceremonial garments, were fully open at the front and made from valuable fabrics such as telli çatma, seraser and kemha. On outer kaftans, a second sleeve section called “yen” hung down from the shoulder to the length of the kaftan. These “yen” sleeves added grandeur to the sultan’s appearance and also held symbolic significance, being kissed during ceremonies such as holidays.

While overall cuts were generally similar, variations existed in details such as collar (round, hakim, upright), sleeve (short, long, detachable, with cutouts on front panels) and pocket (pouch, buttoned).

Historical Evolution and Disuse

Ottoman dress retained its essential form for centuries until the 19th century. With changes in men’s clothing in the early 19th century, the use of kaftans ceased. Women continued wearing traditional garments for a while longer, but from the mid-19th century onward, European fashion completely transformed their attire. During this period, entari became exclusively a women’s garment. Traditional clothing, which had gradually declined since the 18th century, had nearly disappeared by the end of the 19th century.

Topkapı Palace Museum Collection and Preservation of Kaftans

The Ottoman tradition of packing and sealing the sultans’ inner and outer garments ensured the survival of invaluable kaftans to the present day. This practice began after the death of Fatih Sultan Mehmet and enabled the observation of changes in Ottoman dress from the 16th century to the early 20th century. The Topkapı Palace Museum’s Archive of Sultans’ Attire, one of the world’s richest collections, holds approximately 2,500 garments, the majority of which are hil’ats, kaftans and şalvars. Although fewer in number, children’s garments belonging to princes and sultans also constitute a distinctive feature of this collection. However, no examples of women’s clothing have been preserved, as there was no tradition of collecting or storing female attire in the treasury.

According to records, the number of kaftans belonging to certain sultans in the Topkapı Palace Museum collection are as follows:

• Fatih Sultan Mehmet: 21 kaftans.
• Kanuni Sultan Süleyman: 77 kaftans.
• I. Ahmet: 13 kaftans.
• II. Osman: 30 kaftans.
• IV. Murat: 27 kaftans.

It is noted that kaftans belonging to the six rulers preceding Fatih Sultan Mehmet are not individually named. These rare artifacts are now preserved with great care in modern climate-controlled storage facilities at the Topkapı Palace Museum. Kaftans are placed individually on special racks, laid flat and covered to protect them from external elements, taking into account their weight. They are also displayed in sections such as the Seferli Koğuşu.

Ottoman sultans’ kaftans are not merely reflections of a period’s fashion but invaluable cultural heritage embodying a civilization’s aesthetic sensibility, artistic skill, symbolic world and social hierarchy. Today exhibited in museums, these pieces serve as windows into the past, remaining valuable resources for researchers and captivating objects for visitors. Research on these kaftans, particularly regarding coded symbols and weaving techniques such as the Gülistan Kemha woven with 8,000 warp threads, continues to this day.