Republic of Bashkortostan

The Republic of Bashkortostan is a federal republic within the Russian Federation that adopted a declaration of sovereignty on 11 October 1990 and during this process adopted the name "Bashkir Soviet Socialist Republic". It is one of the 21 republics incorporated into the Russian Federation following subsequent agreements. Administratively it belongs to the Volga Federal District; its capital is Ufa. The official languages of the republic are Bashkir and Russian, a status formalized by the 1999 Law on the Languages of the Peoples of the Republic of Bashkortostan.

It is known that the first version of the Bashkir flag was adopted in 1917 and features the colors blue white and green along with a seven-branched kurai plant symbolizing the seven tribes that constitute the Bashkir people. The republic’s coat of arms also includes the image of the national hero Salavat Yulayev alongside the kurai plant.

Geography and Location

The historical settlement area of the Bashkirs lies between the Ural Mountains and the northern Volga River basin. This region corresponds to the western edge of the vast geographical area known in literary and historical literature as "Turkestan" extending as far west as the Volga River.

Ancient and medieval sources indicate that the Bashkirs were present at least since antiquity in the western and southern parts of today’s territory as recorded by Ptolemy and that Ibn Fadlan made observations about the Bashkirs in this region in the early 10th century. During the initial phase of Russian expansion the territories of the Kazan Khanate and Bashkortostan emerged as strategic regions in the mid-16th century.

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Administrative Structure and Capital

Bashkortostan is a federal republic subordinate to the Volga (Privoljskiy) Federal District whose administrative center is Nizhny Novgorod. It consists of 54 districts 21 cities 41 towns and 944 rural administrative units. The capital Ufa is also the republic’s largest city.

Other major cities include Sterlitamak Neftekamsk Oktyabrsk Kumertau Salavat and Sibay. Ufa serves not only as the administrative and political center but also as a center for Russian Muslims; the Center for Muslim Affairs of Russia (Muftiate) is located here.

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Population and Ethnic Structure

According to the 2010 census the total population of Bashkortostan is 4072292. In terms of population size it ranks first among the republics of the Russian Federation and seventh among all federal units. The population density is 28.3 persons per square kilometer significantly higher than the Russian Federation average of 8.3. The total population constitutes 2.8 percent of the Russian Federation’s population.

The main ethnic groups are Russians Bashkirs and Tatars. According to the 2010 census Russians numbered 1432906 (36.1 percent) Bashkirs 1172287 (29.5 percent) and Tatars 1009295 (25.4 percent). The remaining approximately 9 percent consists of communities from other republics such as Chuvash Mari Ukrainian Moldovan and Udmurt.

Around 2015 the total population of Bashkortostan was approximately 4.1 million. The combined share of Turkic peoples (Bashkirs Tatars and Chuvash) in the population during this period was about 55 percent. Over 100 ethnic groups live throughout the republic but in the capital Ufa Bashkirs constitute only about 15 percent of the city’s total population.

Although the Bashkirs are the founding ethnic group after whom the republic is named they are a minority within the total population a situation linked to historical boundary adjustments and settlement patterns. A significant portion of the Bashkir population also lives outside Bashkortostan in various oblasts of the Russian Federation including Chelyabinsk Orenburg Perm Sverdlovsk Kurgan and Tyumen as well as in smaller numbers in Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkmenistan and Ukraine.

History

Early Records

One of the earliest attestations of the Bashkirs comes from Ibn Fadlan the secretary of the Abbasid embassy to the Volga Bulgars in 922. In his travel notes he refers to the Bashkirs as a "large Turkic tribe" and identifies the region he encountered as "Bashgirt" linking it to the territory of modern Bashkortostan. The embassy reached Bulgar territory on 12 May 922 and records clearly indicate contact with the Bashkirs along the route.

The Tsarist Period and Uprisings

The most symbolic figure of the mass uprisings against the Tsarist regime in the 18th century is the Bashkir hero Salavat Yulayev. During the Pugachev Rebellion of 1773–1775 Yulayev was initially tasked by the Russian army with suppressing the revolt but after assessing the situation he joined Pugachev and achieved success against General Mixelson’s forces in April 1774. Pugachev’s promises and appeals to the Bashkirs for "full independence" played a significant role in the social mobilization of resistance in the region.

National Organization and Autonomy

From 1905 onward congresses and intellectual currents rose among Muslim Turkic peoples and the Bashkirs held successive kurultays in 1917:

• First Bashkir Congress (20–25 July 1917)
• Second Congress (28–29 August 1917)
• Third Congress (2–17 January 1918)

During the Third Kurultay the "Regulation on the Autonomy of Little Bashkortostan" dated 8–20 December 1917 was adopted. The headline "Long Live Bashkortostan! ... Long Live the United Russian State Based on Popular Power!" in the newspaper Bashkortostan dated 1 March 1918 reflects the political goals and expectations of the period.

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During the Civil War Bashkir units affiliated with the Red Army emerged between 1919 and 1920.^【2】 Within the recognized Bashkir Autonomous Government Zeki Velidi Togan became one of the prominent figures with Bolshevik approval. Finally on 23 March 1919 the RSFSR decree formally recognized "Autonomous Bashkortostan".

Soviet Period (1919–1990)

The Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic is recorded as the first autonomous republic of the Soviet Union. Its territorial formation was completed in 1934 and from the 1930s onward intensive internal migration began due to investments in oil and heavy industry. Some local elites were targeted during Stalin-era purges.

1990–1994

During the dissolution of the Soviet Union the declaration of sovereignty was adopted on 11 October 1990 and the name was updated to "Bashkir Soviet Socialist Republic". Subsequently on 31 March 1992 a Federal Treaty was signed with the Russian Federation and through a special annex Bashkortostan was recognized as the only federal unit granted a special status. Additionally on 11 October 1991 the "Modern Autonomous Republic of Bashkortostan" was proclaimed.

In November 1993 the republic transitioned to a presidential model; on 12 December 1993 Murtaza Rahimov was elected president in the first elections and the constitution was adopted on 24 December 1993.

In 1994 within the framework of power-sharing agreements between Moscow and Ufa two agreements were signed: on 25 May 1994 regulating rights and powers in ten sectors and on 3 August 1994 limiting the scope and authority of institutions. This package was interpreted as formalizing Bashkortostan’s status as an equal federal unit and a sovereign state within the Russian Federation.

Since 1995

In the second half of the 1990s the federal center increasingly demanded that republican laws conform to federal norms when conflicts arose. From 1997 onward a new phase began characterized by efforts to restrict autonomy.

Economy and Subsoil Resources

Bashkortostan ranks among the top regions in the Russian Federation in terms of economic production value; more than half of its industry is concentrated in Ufa. The backbone of the economy is formed by the petrochemical and machinery manufacturing industries along with agriculture. Refineries and petrochemical plants play a decisive role; the republic has natural gas pipelines and major energy centers in Ufa Sterlitamak Isimbay Kumertau Karmavau and other centers. In manufacturing iron and steel coal electricity sugar timber cotton and wool textiles as well as aircraft production fertilizers leather tobacco shipbuilding and automobile manufacturing are prominent. Mineral products and fuel hold a significant share in foreign trade.

The republic is also notable for its rich subsoil resources including oil natural gas coal peat copper zinc iron manganese aluminum and gold. Over 3000 mineral reserves have been identified. Bashkortostan provides 37 percent of Russia’s rock salt production 49 percent of its zinc production and 12 percent of its copper production. In oil production it ranks third after Tyumen and Tatarstan and first in oil refining capacity; Bashneft is the leading producer with an annual capacity of approximately 12 million tons.

On a macro scale Bashkortostan alone produces 2.7 percent of Russia’s industrial output and 4.4 percent of its agricultural output. This production structure and its emphasis on oil and petrochemicals have made the republic one of the few units that does not receive federal budget support but instead contributes to it ("donor" region).

In foreign economic relations over 91 countries have traded with Bashkortostan during the 2000s; foreign trade volume reached 6.5 billion US dollars in 2005 and 7.6 billion US dollars in 2007. During this period the United Kingdom Switzerland the Netherlands Kazakhstan Italy Hungary Germany Panama the Bahamas and China ranked among the top ten markets. Germany Belgium the United Kingdom and the Greek Cypriot Administration were the main investor countries.

In agriculture and livestock Bashkortostan provides 4.1 percent of Russia’s agricultural and animal production; productive western plains and well-developed settlement and transportation networks support its agricultural capacity.

Language Religion and Culture

Language and Script

The official languages of Bashkortostan are Bashkir and Russian as established by law and confirmed by the 1999 Law on the Languages of the Peoples of the Republic of Bashkortostan. Tatar has not been granted official state language status. In practice bilingualism (Bashkir and Russian) is widespread and trilingualism (Bashkir Tatar and Russian) is common in rural areas.

The writing system originally based on the Arabic alphabet after the adoption of Islam was officially replaced by Latin letters on 7 June 1928 and then shifted to the Cyrillic script in 1939 under Soviet policy. The current Bashkir alphabet consists of 42 letters: 33 from the Russian alphabet plus nine additional characters including nine vowels 27 consonants four diphthongs and two signs.

Religion

Historical sources indicate that since early times both Hanafi Muslims and Christian Bashkirs coexisted in the region. The spread of Islam is attributed to the influence of Volga Bulgar ulema and merchant-missionaries who arrived in the region. After the conquest of Kazan the Turkic-Tatar population became the pioneer of madrasas and religious education. Bashkir youth were sent to centers such as Egypt and Aleppo for Islamic studies following the Hanafi tradition.

Folk Culture

At the beginning of the 20th century folklore collection accelerated; with the work of Möhemmetşa Buranğolov folk songs epics and traditions such as Ural Batyr were scientifically documented. The Bashkir Cultural Society was founded in 1922 and collections were published in journals such as Bashkir Aymağı Sesen and Yangı Yul. During the Soviet period some epics such as Izevkey and Morazim were deemed problematic and banned in 1944. From 1954 onward multi-volume publications under the title "Bashkir Folk Creativity" were issued and in 1995 it was decided to reorganize the complete collection into 36 volumes.

Epic recitations are performed by narrators known as yırav or "sesen" accompanied by the kurai dombra and kopuz; the kurai is highlighted as the national instrument of the Bashkirs. Major epics include Ural Batyr Alpamış Küsek Bey Karas menen Aksha Izevkey menen Morazim Akbuzat and the love-themed Zöhre menen Aldar Zayatülek menen Hıvhılıv Kara Yurğa and Boz Yiğit.

Bashkortostan is a member of TÜRKSOY and in 2006 a UNESCO office was opened in the republic to provide institutional support for access to information and cultural programs.

Salavat Yulayev holds the position of "national hero" in Bashkir collective memory. A mounted statue of him faces the Volga River on a high hill in Ufa. The statue made of copper-iron alloy was constructed in the 1960s and is one of the region’s symbolic landmarks. In 2004 the 250th anniversary of Salavat Yulayev’s birth and the 430th anniversary of Ufa were officially celebrated and the year was declared the "Year of Salavat Yulayev".

Politics and Governance

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union Bashkortostan transitioned to a presidential model. In the first presidential election held on 12 December 1993 Murtaza Rahimov was elected and the republic’s constitution was adopted on 24 December 1993.

The Federal Treaty signed on 31 March 1992 granted Bashkortostan extensive powers through a special annex. This arrangement positioned Bashkortostan as the only federal unit with a special status.

In 1994 a package of agreements signed between Moscow and Ufa included two key accords: on 25 May 1994 regulating rights and powers in ten sectors and on 3 August 1994 limiting the scope and authority of institutions. This framework was interpreted as formalizing Bashkortostan’s status as an equal federal unit and a sovereign state within the Russian Federation.

The agreements provided for special rights in areas such as use of natural resources independent state organs its own citizenship autonomous legal and judicial system tax system and limited taxation national banking and foreign relations.

In the post-1993 period the government took steps to strengthen sovereignty. Practices such as non-compliance with rulings of the Russian Supreme Court on local matters and the prioritization of republican laws over conflicting federal laws attracted attention.

Throughout the 1990s under Rahimov’s leadership a monosentric authoritarian regime took root. From 1997 onward the federal center strengthened its policy of compliance and re-centralization.

In the fall of 2004 a reform was introduced whereby regional leaders including republic presidents were to be appointed by federal proposal and confirmed by local parliaments. Under this framework in 2006 Rahimov was reappointed by the Bashkortostan Parliament following a proposal by Vladimir Putin. On 19 July 2010 R. Z. Hamitov was appointed president following a proposal by Dmitry Medvedev.

Political Calendar and Symbolic Days

The day celebrated on 11 October was called "Sovereignty Day" during Yeltsin’s presidency and "Day of the Declaration of State Sovereignty" during Putin’s presidency.

Foreign Relations

Bashkortostan’s foreign relations are conducted through parliamentary interparliamentary regional commercial economic business scientific and cultural cooperation. The countries with which it has the most cooperation include Austria the United Kingdom Germany the Netherlands Turkey the Czech Republic Slovakia Hungary India Italy China Finland the United States Kazakhstan Ukraine and Belarus. Over 30 intergovernmental and institutional agreements have been signed as of 2007. Foreign representation plays a significant role in these relations.

Bashkortostan became a member of TÜRKSOY established in Almaty on 12 July 1993. Additionally a UNESCO office was opened in the republic in 2006. The primary objective was defined as establishing a "public information system that is open universal and accessible" in Bashkortostan.

Bashkortostan’s foreign representations are located in Istanbul Astana and Austria. The representation in Istanbul opened in 2004 and has assumed a central role in relations with Turkey. The Ministry of Foreign Economic Relations maintains representations in 11 countries. Relations with Turkey were formally launched on 20 February 2004 and the opening ceremony took place on 23 April 2005 with the participation of Prime Minister R. I. Baydevletov.

Bashkortostan Cultural Days were held in Istanbul from 18 to 21 June 2009; a high-level delegation led by Prime Minister Rail Sarbayev visited Turkey for this event. Practical links such as regular flights by Turkish Airlines have facilitated trade between Turkey and Bashkortostan.

Bashkortostan’s investment appeal and credit ratings are monitored by international institutions; for example on 31 March 2011 a Standard & Poor’s team conducted an evaluation in Ufa and raised the credit rating to BB+. Moody’s assigned a Ba1 (stable) rating.

Foreign trade volume stood at 6.5 billion US dollars in 2005 and 7.6 billion US dollars in 2007. In 2011 Turkey’s share of foreign investment in the republic was 4.1 percent placing it among the investor countries. As of 2009 Turkish capital in Bashkortostan was recorded at 71.5 million US dollars with around eighty Turkish-capital enterprises operating. Turkish construction firms and Şişecam are among the leading investors.

Transportation and Connectivity

Turkish Airlines operates regular flights to Bashkortostan and serves as one of the main access channels supporting institutional and economic relations between Turkey and Bashkortostan.

A critical railway connection exists between Bashkortostan and Tatarstan which is vital for the region’s industrial and commercial circulation. These lines form the backbone for connecting the Ufa-centered industrial belt to external markets and the Volga basin.

The Volga Kama Yayik (Ural) and Ak İdil (Belaya/Ağizel) rivers hold commercial and strategic importance. Throughout history significant trade has been conducted along these waterways. As indicated by geographical settlement patterns Bashkortostan extends from the Southern Urals westward to the Ağizel and Kama rivers; these major rivers define the region’s internal transportation and logistics network.

The republic has natural gas pipelines. Its energy infrastructure serves as a stable supply and export channel between industrial centers and external markets.

The main transportation hubs of the republic are Ufa and surrounding industrial cities (Sterlitamak Neftekamsk Oktyabrsk Kumertau Salavat Sibay etc.); these settlements are integrated with railway and river lines running parallel to the region’s main geographical axes.