This article was automatically translated from the original Turkish version.
Russia Federation, with a total area of 17,075,400 km², spans across Asia and Europe and is the largest country in the world by land area. With borders shared with 14 countries, Russia is a major actor in global politics due to its strategic location, natural wealth and deep historical roots.【1】 The country’s official language is Russian and its capital is Moscow. It has a federal constitutional republic structure and is governed by a presidential system. The President holds executive power while legislative authority belongs to the Federal Assembly.【2】
Throughout its history, Russia has undergone different forms of governance including the Tsardom of Russia, the Soviet Union and its current federal structure, and remains among the countries that shape global political and economic balances. As one of the world’s richest countries in terms of natural gas, oil and mineral reserves, it has an economy based on the energy sector. In addition, Russia’s vast geography encompasses diverse climate zones and ecosystems, placing it in a biodiversity rich country position. Industry, science, technology and military advancements position Russia as a important power on the international stage.【3】
The Russian Federation has a population of 146.4 million, with the majority residing in European Russia. The average population density is calculated at 8.4 people per km², rising to 26.6 people per km² in European Russia and falling to 1.2 people per km² in Siberia and the Pacific coast.
The level of urbanization is very high, with the majority of the population living in urban areas. Moscow and St. Petersburg are among the country’s largest metropolitan centers and serve as key economic, cultural and political hubs. Other major cities such as Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan are also significant population centers. The proportion of the population living in rural areas is steadily declining and currently accounts for approximately one-quarter of the total population.
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a population decline trend began, with falling birth rates and migration causing the population to shrink since 1992. If this trend continues, a 30% population decline is projected by 2050.
Life expectancy varies by gender, with the average lifespan for men estimated at 64.7 years and for women at 76.6 years. Major factors contributing to higher mortality rates among men include alcohol consumption, smoking and cardiovascular diseases. Russia is implementing various policies to counter population decline. Migration policies play a importance role in managing this process, and the state has introduced family support programs to increase birth rates, but low birth rates and high death rates remain insufficient to achieve population growth.
The Russian Federation is one of the world’s largest multiethnic states. More than 190 ethnic groups live in the country. According to the 2010 census, 160 distinct ethnic groups reside within the Russian Federation. Russians constitute 80.9% of the total population, Ukrainians 1.4% and Belarusians 0.4%, meaning Slavic peoples make up 82.7% of the population. The largest ethnic minority after the Slavs is a group encompassing various Turkish communities; 8.7% of the population, approximately 12 million people, belong to various Turkic groups.【4】 Other significant ethnic groups in the country include the Bashkirs, Chuvash, Chechens, Armenians, Avars, Belarusians, Kazakhs, Azerbaijanis, Reliefs, Yakuts and Ingush.
Within Russia’s vast territory, certain regions are densely populated by specific ethnic groups. The Tatar and Bashkir populations are concentrated especially in Tatarstan and Bashkortostan. The North Caucasus region is home to various ethnic groups such as Chechens, Avars and Ingush. In Siberia, Turkic and Mongolic peoples such as the Yakuts and Buryats live.
The majority of ethnic groups speak Russian. In different regions, under autonomous administrations, they have the right to preserve their own languages. Russian is the official language of the country, but Tatar, Chuvash, Bashkir, Chechen and Yakut are recognized as second official languages in regions where the respective ethnic groups are concentrated.
Ethnic building and linguistic diversity have directly influenced Russia’s federal structure. The country has 21 autonomous republics, typically established in regions where a specific ethnic group predominates. Due to demographic changes and migration movements, the populations of some minority groups are showing a declining trend within these republics.
The Russian Federation is a federation composed of 83 administrative units. The country consists of different types of administrative units defined by its constitution: 21 republics (each with its own constitution and legislative and executive bodies), 9 krais (province), 46 oblasts (region), 2 federal cities with special status (Moscow and St. Petersburg) and 5 autonomous districts.【5】 Official sources list a total of 83 federal units. Each administrative unit has its own has local governing bodies. The distribution of powers between the federal government and these units is regulated by law and managed to preserve the integrity of the federal system.
The President exercises a significant portion of executive power and also serves as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The Prime Minister is responsible for government administration and is appointed by the President, then submitted for approval by the State Duma, the lower chamber of the Federal Assembly. The executive branch operates through the Cabinet of Ministers and various federal agencies. The legislative branch, known as the Federal Assembly, consists of two chambers: the State Duma and the Federation Council. The State Duma includes representatives elected by the public, while the Federation Council comprises members appointed from each federal unit to represent its interests.【6】
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation entered a process of reorganization on the international stage. The fundamental pillars shaping its foreign policy are independence, preservation of sovereignty and the goal of building a multipolar world order. In its relations with global actors and regional powers, economic cooperation, security agreements and energy policies are prioritized. While maintaining tensions with Western countries, Russia seeks to develop strategic partnerships with China, India, Central East and African nations. Russia is working to enhance its economic and political influence through regional organizations such as the Eurasia Economic Union and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.
Russia- USA relations have followed an unstable trajectory since the end of the Cold War. Strategic arms reduction agreements such as START I, II and III aimed to maintain strategic balance between the two countries. However, tensions have arisen due to NATO’s eastward expansion, the NATO crisis, mutual sanctions and the Syrian Civil War. U.S. economic sanctions and military deterrence policies toward Russia have accelerated Moscow’s pivot toward Asia and Eurasia.
Russia-EU relations are shaped around energy, trade and security policies. Russia plays a critical role in Europe’s energy supply security as one of its largest suppliers of natural gas and oil. Following Russia’s annexation of Crimea and the Ukrainian crisis in 2014, the EU began imposing economic sanctions on Russia. The strengthening of Europe’s ties with NATO has complicated Moscow’s diplomatic relations with the EU.
Russia-China relations are deepening on the basis of economic and military cooperation. Energy trade is central to their relationship, with Russia being one of China’s largest suppliers of oil and natural gas. Russia-China close relations manifest not only in economic terms but also in defense and technology sectors. China is one of the countries interested in Russia’s advanced defense industry technologies. The sales of the S-400 air defense system and Water-35 war aircraft in the 2010s made China the first foreign customer to acquire these advanced systems from Russia.
The two countries regularly conduct common military exercises: Chinese units occasionally participate in Russian strategic drills such as “Vostok” and “Tsentr,” while joint naval exercises are conducted across regions from the Mediterranean to the Sea of Japan under the name “Sea Cooperation.” These exercises strengthen military-to-military communication. In terms of technology transfer, China benefited from Russian advisors and Soviet-era knowledge when developing its first nuclear submarine and first manned spacecraft.
Cooperation in space continues today; in 2021, the two countries announced plans to establish a joint Moon base. Close cooperation also exists in the information technology and telecommunications sectors. Chinese firms such as Huawei, struggling under U.S. sanctions, have played a key role in building Russia’s 5G infrastructure; Moscow has focused on constructing a large portion of its 5G network using Chinese technology. China provides Russia with advanced production equipment and electronic components, while Russia supports China in areas where it excels, such as rocket engines and airplane engines.
Cultural and educational partnerships also form an important dimension of the relationship. In recent years, thousands of Chinese students have come to Russia for education, while many Russian students study at Chinese universities. Confucius Institutes in various Russian cities promote Chinese language and culture, while institutions such as the Pushkin Institute in Beijing spread the Russian language in China. U.S. sanction policies toward both countries have further strategically brought Russia and China closer.
Russia-India relations have historically been based on defense industry and energy cooperation. Moscow is among India’s largest arms suppliers and continues collaboration on projects such as the BrahMos missiles, Su-30 fighter jets and nuclear reactor technology.
Russia is enhancing cooperation with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan in trade, energy and security. Kazakhstan, in particular, has developed economic ties with Russia within the Eurasian Economic Union and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In the Caucasus, Russia maintains strategic alliances with Armenia, while relations with Azerbaijan and Georgia remain more distant.
Russia-Türkiye relations have accelerated in many areas from economy to defense since the end of the Cold War. Although they experienced ups and downs in the 1990s, a mutual addiction network of cooperation emerged especially from the 2000s onward.
In economic relations, energy and trade are the most prominent areas. As of 2023, Türkiye has become one of Russia’s largest trading partners. Türkiye imports energy resources from Russia, primarily natural gas and oil, while exporting agricultural products, textiles and industrial goods to Russia. As of 2023, the total trade volume between the two countries reached $55.5 billion.
In the energy sector, one of the key projects between Türkiye and Russia is the TurkStream Natural Gas Pipeline. Launched on 8 January 2020, this project enables the transportation of Russian natural gas across the Black Sea to Türkiye and further to Europe. Russia’s energy dependence on Türkiye has been strengthened through such projects, while Türkiye has become a major buyer of Russian natural gas.【7】
One of the strategic energy cooperation projects between Russia and Türkiye is Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant. Initiated by the agreement signed in 2010, this project is Türkiye’s first nuclear power plant. Constructed by the Russian state nuclear energy corporation Rosatom, power plant will consist of four reactors with a total capacity of 4,800 megawatts. The first reactor is scheduled to come online in 2023. Akkuyu NPP aims to secure Türkiye’s energy supply while simultaneously strengthening the long-term strategic cooperation between Russia and Türkiye.【8】
The construction sector is another important pillar of economic cooperation between the two countries. Turkish construction firms have been highly active in Russia since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, undertaking over 2,000 projects worth a total of $102 billion between 1987 and 2023. Russia ranks first among the countries where Turkish contractors have carried out the most work.
Tourism is another strong dimension of the relationship: Russia has long been Türkiye’s largest source of tourists. The year 2019 was declared the “Türk-Rus Culture and Tourism Year,” and that year a record 7.1 million Russian tourists visited Türkiye. This means Russians accounted for more than 15% of all foreign tourists to Türkiye. Russian tourists have again approached pre-pandemic levels, arriving in millions; only in 2023, the foreign exchange earnings from Russian tourists in Türkiye reached $6 billion.
Another aspect of human mobility involves Turks working or living in Russia and Russian citizens residing in Türkiye. Thousands of Turks work in construction, trade and service sectors in cities such as Moscow and St. Petersburg; meanwhile, tens of thousands of Russian citizens reside permanently or hold property in Türkiye, with Antalya being the primary location. These situation communities enhance intercultural interaction and support cultural closeness. In education and culture, the two countries strengthen communication through university partnerships and language learning centers (Turkology chairs in Russia and Russian Language centers in Türkiye).
Military cooperation between Türkiye and Russia has seen developments in recent years in the defense industry. Türkiye’s purchase of the S-400 air defense system from Russia has been one of the most notable aspects of their strategic military relations. While the Syrian issue has at times created tensions in their military and security cooperation, the parties continue cooperation through diplomatic platforms such as the Astana process.
Diplomatic relations have occasionally experienced crises. The 2015 incident in which a Russian warplane was shot down by Türkiye caused a crisis in bilateral relations. However, through diplomatic efforts, relations were restored from 2016 onward and cooperation strengthened. Today, Russia and Türkiye are working to establish common movement on regional issues such as Black Sea security, Middle East policies and developments in the Caucasus. Long-term energy projects such as the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant are among the factors strengthening the strategic cooperation between the two countries.
Russia’s recent status as the country most subjected to international embargoes has created a forecast space for countries at risk of future embargoes, with Türkiye being the foremost example.
In this context, Russia’s measures against embargoes serve as a qualitative data resource for countries potentially facing similar risks. For countries such as Türkiye, positioned in global trade and energy flows, Russia’s experience functions as a laboratory for testing potential reaction models and alternative projects against harsh sanctions.
The Russian Federation participates in numerous regional and global cooperation mechanisms. The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), established in 1991 after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, is a regional organization created by Russia to maintain relations with former Soviet states. Although CIS promotes economic and political cooperation, it has failed to achieve integration in the sense of a unified entity. Later, in 2010, the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) was formed from a union between Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus, aiming to strengthen regional economic integration. The EAEU continues its activities with goals such as promoting free trade among member states and harmonizing common customs tariffs and investment policies.
In the field of regional security, Russia is among the founding members of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), established in 2001 with China. Although the SCO was initially founded to address regional security and counter-terrorism, it has expanded its scope over time to include economic cooperation. The organization’s international importance has grown with the participation of countries such as China, India, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Meanwhile, the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), aimed at enhancing military cooperation among former Soviet states, has become a cornerstone of Russia’s regional security policy. This organization, with members Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, ensures military coordination among members under mutual defense agreements.
Russia also participates in global cooperation. As a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, Russia holds veto power, granting it an advantage on the international diplomatic stage. Russia uses this power to intervene in geopolitical developments in the Middle East, Ukraine and the Asia-Pacific region. Additionally, to gain influence in global economic policies, Russia plays an active role in international economic platforms such as the G20 and BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa). BRICS countries are working to develop alternatives to Western-dominated financial systems by increasing economic cooperation.
In the context of regional trade, the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) is a platform aimed at strengthening Russia’s economic and commercial relations with countries bordering the Black Sea. Joint projects in energy, transportation and trade are being conducted with many countries, including Türkiye. In the energy sector, relations with the European Union (EU) are shaped within the framework of strategic cooperation based on Russia’s natural gas and oil exports. Projects such as Nord Stream and TurkStream are among Russia’s large-scale initiatives to secure energy supply to Europe.
The Armed Forces of the Russian Federation consist of five main service branches aligned with the country’s defense strategies: Ground Forces, Aerospace Forces, Navy, Strategic Rocket Forces and Airborne Troops. This structure is designed to protect Russia’s vast geographical boundaries and ensure national security.
The Ground Forces are among Russia’s largest military units. Their primary responsibilities include conducting land operations, ensuring border security and establishing a deterrent force in strategic regions. The Ground Forces include motorized rifle units, tank units, missile and artillery units, and air defense elements. These units are equipped to fight in various land and climatic conditions.
The Aerospace Forces were established in 2015 through the merger of the Air Force and Space Defense Forces. Their primary duties include protecting airspace, conducting strategic bombardment operations, defending against threats from space and operating ballistic missile early warning systems. Additionally, they ensure the protection of state administrative centers, military command posts and key administrative-political facilities.
The Navy operates to secure Russia’s maritime routes and defend against threats from the sea. The Navy consists of five main units: the Northern Fleet, Pacific Fleet, Black Sea Fleet, Baltic Fleet and Caspian Flotilla. Its primary missions include conducting ballistic missile submarine patrols and maintaining operational readiness against designated threats.
The Strategic Rocket Forces form the foundation of Russia’s nuclear deterrence strategy. These forces are responsible for operating intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Equipped with advanced missile systems, they aim to ensure national strategic security and strengthen nuclear deterrence. They possess mobile and fixed missile launchers with fast reaction capabilities.
The Airborne Troops serve as Russia’s rapid response force. They possess the capability to conduct Enemy line operations behind enemy lines. Composed of parachute brigades and special operations units, these forces rapidly deploy to strategic areas to carry out military missions. Equipped with light armored vehicles and mobile units, they are ready for immediate intervention with high mobility. The Russian Federation’s military organization aims to maximize the country’s defense capacity through the integration and coordination of these five main forces. Each force’s specific roles and capabilities are determined in accordance with Russia’s vast geographical area and strategic objectives.
Russia, possessing vast natural source reserves, holds a decisive position in the global energy market. Despite Western sanctions imposed after 2022, its economy has grown, developing new trade routes and enhancing its global influence. As of 2023, Russia’s GDP was approximately $2 trillion.
Following the sanctions, Russia adopted a strategy to reduce its economic dependence on foreign markets, promoting domestic production and establishing new supply chains. Relations with alternative trade partners such as China, India, Türkiye and Gulf countries have been strengthened, shifting the direction of foreign trade from the West to the East.
In 2023, the Russian economy recorded approximately 3.6% growth, with unemployment remaining at a low level of 3.2%. The country has stabilized its position in the global system by managing its internal economic variables. The trade surplus in 2023 reached $140 billion, with exports amounting to $425 billion and imports to $285 billion.
In response to Western efforts to remove Russia from the SWIFT system, Russia integrated with China’s CIPS payment system and developed joint financial infrastructures with BRICS countries. The Russian Center Bank increased its gold reserves and sought financial independence through the digital ruble project. Despite sanctions, the banking sector continued to grow, and trade remained uninterrupted thanks to financial cooperation with Asian and African countries.
Russia’s trade structure is heavily based on energy resources and raw material exports. Oil, natural gas, coal, metals and grain dominate its exports. In 2023, total exports amounted to $425 billion, while imports reached $285 billion.
The industrial sector accounts for 36.7% of the country’s GDP, with heavy industry, energy production and metallurgy holding the largest shares. Russia is one of the world’s largest natural gas producers, and its industrial structure is based on an energy-dependent model. However, advanced technology and consumer goods manufacturing constitute a smaller portion of the economy.
Russia, as one of the world’s largest energy producers, strategically leverages its energy sector. In 2023, it produced an average of 11.3 million barrels of oil per day. A large portion of Russia’s energy production relies on fossil fuels. However, significant projects are underway in hydropower and nuclear energy. Rosatom’s nuclear energy projects continue, with investments made in countries such as Türkiye and Egypt.
Natural gas production reached 750 billion cubic meters, with the main export market shifting from Europe to Asia. Under agreements with China, the capacity of the Power of Siberia gas pipeline has been increased, and liquefied natural gas (LNG) exports to India and other Asian countries have expanded.
In response to price caps on Russian oil and sanctions, trade has begun using local money units. Trade conducted in Chinese yuan, Indian rupees and Russian rubles has supported the regionalization of the global financial system along an Asian axis. Simultaneously, through joint projects with China to restructure the trade system, Russia has begun experimenting with goods barter trade.
Russia’s agricultural sector contributes approximately 4.3% to its GDP, with grain production being the most important agricultural activity. In 2023, Russia produced 90 million tons of wheat, becoming one of the world’s leaders and enhancing food security through increased agricultural exports.
Although a large portion of Russia’s agricultural land is subject to harsh climatic conditions, agricultural activities are concentrated especially in southern regions. In response to sanctions imposed in 2022, Russia redirected its agricultural policies toward the domestic market and increased trade with friend countries. Agricultural exports to China, India, Türkiye, Central Asia and African countries have notably increased.
Modernization efforts in agriculture have speed success, with increased efficiency achieved through digital farming technologies and automation investments. Russia remains an important player in the global fertilizer market. State-supported subsidies have been increased, and low-interest loans have been provided to domestic farmers to expand production capacity.
Russia, as the world’s largest country by area, possesses a vast and complex transportation network. The country’s transportation infrastructure consists of a comprehensive system encompassing air, road, rail and water transport. The 85,494 km railway network serves as a transportation system connecting major industrial centers and ports. The total length of roadways is 1,283,387 km, of which 927,721 km are asphalted and 39,143 km are highway. Air transport is crucial due to the vast geographical area and long distances between cities. Russia has a total of 904 airports and 383 helipads.
Maritime and river transport are also actively used in the country. The 102,000 km inland waterways form a strategic network connecting the Baltic Sea, White Sea, Caspian Sea, Azak Sea and Black Sea. Russia has a total of 67 major ports. Key ports include Arkhangelsk, De Kastri, Kaliningrad, Murmansk, Novorossiysk, St. Petersburg and Vladivostok.
In terms of energy transport, Russia possesses 177,700 km of natural gas pipelines, 54,800 km of oil pipelines and 19,300 km of refined product pipelines, placing it in a critical position in global energy supply. Additionally, Russia maintains the world’s largest icebreaker fleet to keep northern sea routes open. Nuclear-powered heavy icebreakers ensure navigability during winter months. Russia’s transportation infrastructure has been developed to connect its vast geography and ensure the continuity of economic activities, and its efficiency is being enhanced through modernization efforts.
Russia is active in science and technology, particularly in space research, defense industry, aviation and engineering. The country’s scientific infrastructure is shaped by academic institutions, research centers and industrial facilities inherited from the Soviet Union.
Russia’s space program is conducted by Roscosmos. Space research encompasses human spaceflight, satellite systems and rocket technologies. Russia’s space activities are carried out from launch centers such as the Baikonur Cosmodrome (Kazakhstan), Vostochny Cosmodrome (Amur Oblast), Plesetsk Cosmodrome (Arkhangelsk Oblast) and Kapustin Yar (Astrahan Oblast). Baikonur, the largest space center since the Soviet era, will continue to be leased by Russia until 2050.
Roscosmos operates in various fields including rocket systems, unmanned aerial vehicles, space electronics, military missiles and telecommunications systems. The country has long participated in International Space Station (ISS) projects and conducts both manned and unmanned space missions.
Russia develops various technologies in the defense industry. Hypersonic missiles, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and artificial intelligence-based military systems are among the main areas of research. Additionally, research is being conducted in air defense systems, electronic warfare technologies and military satellite systems on.
Russia conducts research in engineering and basic sciences through academic institutions and research institutes. Particularly in energy, materials science, artificial intelligence and biotechnology, research is ongoing. The country’s science and technology policies are oriented toward supporting development in strategic sectors and focus on defense, space and heavy industry among other areas.
The Russian Federation, as the world’s largest country by area, lies between Asia and Europe. Covering approximately 11% of the world’s land area at 17,075,400 square kilometers, it extends from the Great Ocean in the east to the Baltic Sea in the west, from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea and Caspian Sea in the south.【9】 It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean in the north, the Pacific Ocean in the east, North Korea, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Georgia in the south, and Ukraine, Belarus, Latvia, Estonia, Finland and Norway in the west. Additionally, the Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave outside the main territory, is surrounded by Poland, Lithuania and the Baltic Sea.【10】
The country’s topography includes diverse land structures from east to west and north to south. In the west, vast plains and lowlands give way to high plateaus, mountain ranges and wide valleys as one moves eastward. The country is generally divided into five main regions: European Russia, the Ural Mountains, the West Siberian Plain, the Central and East Siberian Highlands and the Far Eastern Mountainous Region.【11】
European Russia lies west of the Ural Mountains and consists of extensive, low plains. This region has been shaped by major rivers such as the Volga, Dvina and Pechora. The Ural Mountains are considered a significant geological boundary separating Asia and Europe and create a noticeable elevation difference as one moves eastward. This mountain range, with an average height of 1,500 meters, is especially rich in mineral resources.【12】
The West Siberian Plain is a region extending from the Ural Mountains to the Yenisei River and is considered one of the world’s largest lowlands. Due to its low elevation near sea level and extensive wetlands, it contains areas unsuitable for agriculture. The Central and East Siberian Highlands are a rugged region encompassing vast forests, river valleys and high mountain ranges. Major rivers such as the Lena, Yenisei and Obi are key geographical features of this region.
Far Eastern Russia is characterized by high mountain ranges and active volcanoes. The Kamchatka Peninsula is one of Russia’s most active volcanic areas, featuring peaks such as Klyuchevskaya Sopka (4,750 m). Regions such as Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands frequently experience earthquakes due to tectonic activity. Russia’s highest point is Mount Elbrus at 5,642 meters in the Caucasus Mountains, while its lowest point is the Caspian Sea at -28 meters.【13】
Russia’s topography exhibits great diversity, ranging from extensive forested areas to tundra, steppes and mountainous regions. The country’s complex landforms support diverse ecosystems, significantly influencing climate, agriculture and the distribution of natural resources.
Russia, due to its vast area, encompasses multiple climate zones. The northern regions are under the influence of Arctic and subarctic climates, while the central regions experience a continental climate. Southern areas exhibit steppe and subtropical climate characteristics. The Arctic region in the far north has a climate dominated by low temperatures year-round, with winter temperatures dropping below -40°C. The subarctic zone, covering vast areas of taiga forests, experiences cold conditions for most of the year.
In central Russia, particularly in regions such as Moscow and St. Petersburg, continental climate characteristics prevail. Winters are long and harsh, while write months are short and mild. Average January temperatures range from -9°C to -16°C, while July temperatures range from 13°C to 23°C.【14】
In the interior of Siberia, an extreme continental climate results in cold conditions for most of the year. In regions such as Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon, winter temperatures can drop to -60°C, while summer temperatures can rise to 30°C, indicating large temperature variations in the region.
A subtropical climate is observed along Russia’s Black Sea coast and in the Caucasus region. Summers are hot and humid, while winters are mild. Areas such as Sochi and Krasnodar experience relatively milder temperatures throughout the year.
In eastern Russia, the influence of the Pacific Ocean results in a monsoon climate. This region experiences heavy rainfall during summer months, while winters are dry and cold. Coastal cities such as Vladivostok are exposed to cold air masses from Siberia in winter but have a rainy climate in summer due to moist air from the sea.
The Russian Federation has a diverse plant cover. Vegetation changes distinctly from north to south across the country. In the Arctic regions in the far north, vegetation is limited due to harsh climatic conditions. Tundra dominates here, consisting mainly of lichens, mosses and dwarf shrubs.【15】
South of the tundra zone lies the taiga forests, which cover a large portion of Russia. Taiga consists of extensive areas of dense coniferous trees. The main species in these forests are pine, spruce and fir. This region, extending from European Russia to eastern Siberia, is of great importance in global oxygen production. Forest density decreases east of the Ural Mountains, and further east, more open and mixed forest areas are observed.
Further south, Russia’s steppe regions are found. Steppes consist of vast grasslands with fertile soils suitable for agriculture. Extending from the Ukrainian border to southern Russia and the Kazakh border, these areas are of great importance for wheat production. The natural vegetation of this region consists of steppe grasses and shrubs.
In southern Russia, in the Caucasus and along the Black Sea coast, a different vegetation type is observed under the influence of a subtropical climate. These regions feature broadleaf forests, fruit trees and plant species characteristic of the Mediterranean climate. In areas such as Krasnodar and Sochi, tea and grape cultivation is widespread.
In eastern Russia, particularly on the Kamchatka Peninsula and in the Far East, volcanic terrain and coastal forests are common. Here, broadleaf trees and mixed forests are found in areas with heavy rainfall. Desert and semi-desert areas in the interior are found along the Caspian Sea coast and the Central Asian border.
The Russian Federation possesses approximately 20% of the world’s sweet water reserves, which are of great economic and ecological importance. The country has major rivers, lakes, groundwater and wetlands. Water resources are distributed across the Arctic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Caspian Sea, Baltic Sea and Black Sea basins.
Russia’s water resources are used in sectors such as hydropower generation, transportation, industry, agriculture and fishing. The country’s major hydropower plants include:
Due to industrialization and urbanization, water pollution has become a problem. Water quality has declined in rivers near major industrial centers. The Russian government is implementing various regulations to protect water resources.
Russia’s major rivers nourish vast watersheds and are used in various fields from hydropower generation to transportation. The main rivers are: Volga River, Ob River, Yenisei River, Lena River and Amur River. The Volga River is the longest river in Europe (3,531 km). It is located in western Russia and flows into the Caspian Sea.
It is important for hydropower generation, transportation and drinking water supply. The Ob River (3,650 km) in western Siberia joins with the Irtysh River and flows into the Arctic Ocean. It is an important water source for industrial cities in Siberia. The Yenisei (3,487 km), Russia’s second-longest river, hosts major hydropower plants. The Sayano-Shushensk and Krasnoyarsk hydropower plants are located on this river. The Lena River (4,400 km) in eastern Siberia flows into the Arctic Ocean and serves as a trade route for Yakutsk and other Siberian cities. The Amur River (2,824 km) on the Chinese border is an important river for agricultural irrigation and fishing.
Lakes in the Russian Federation stand out due to their large surface areas and freshwater capacities. Lake Baikal is the world’s deepest freshwater lake (1,642 m) and holds approximately 20% of the world’s freshwater reserves. Listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Lake Baikal hosts approximately 1,700 endemic species. Ladoga Lake is Europe’s largest freshwater lake with an area of 17,891 km² and serves as an important drinking water source for St. Petersburg and surrounding cities. Onega Lake in northwestern Russia is valuable for freshwater fishing and drinking water. It is a transit point on the Volga-Baltic Waterway.
The Caspian Sea, although classified as a Technical lake, is called a sea due to its large surface area. Russia has a coastline on the northern part of the Caspian Sea and holds strategic importance in the region due to its oil and natural gas reserves.
Russia has rich groundwater resources. A large portion of the drinking water needs of major cities such as Moscow, St. Petersburg and Novosibirsk is supplied by groundwater reserves. The wetlands of western Siberia form one of the world’s largest peatland areas. These areas are ecologically significant in terms of carbon storage.【16】
The Russian Federation is one of the countries with diverse ecosystems and rich biodiversity. The country’s territory includes tundra, taiga, steppes, mountain ecosystems and coastal habitats. These ecosystems host numerous endemic plant and animal species. The tundra in northern Russia is characterized by low temperatures and a short summer season. Species such as reindeer, Arctic fox and snowy owl live in these regions.
The taiga forests, covering much of Siberia, are one of the world’s largest forest ecosystems and play a role in the global carbon balance. In these dense forest areas, brown bears, Siberian tigers and vaşak are among the predatory species found. The southern steppes and semi-desert areas, important for agricultural activities, also harbor many rare species. Saiga antelopes, steppe foxes and various rodents are common in these ecosystems. Mountain ecosystems are concentrated especially in the Altai, Caucasus and Ural Mountains. These mountains provide important habitats for snow leopards, mountain goats and large predatory birds.
Russia’s freshwater resources are also important for biodiversity. Lake Baikal, the world’s deepest freshwater lake, hosts approximately 1,700 endemic species. The Baikal seal is a rare mammal species found only in this lake.
Russia has established numerous nature reserves and national parks to protect biodiversity. The country has over 100 protected areas. Areas such as the Lake Baikal Nature Reserve, Sikhote-Alin Reserve and Sochi National Park are considered critical habitats for the survival of rare species. However, the effects of industrialization and climate change threaten these ecosystems.
Among endangered species, the Siberian tiger is the most prominent. Although its population has increased in recent years, it remains under significant risk due to illegal hunting and habitat loss. The Saiga antelope is also among threatened species due to overhunting and climate change. In addition, the Baikal seal and Caspian Sea sturgeon are other important species whose populations are declining due to overfishing and pollution.
Russia has joined international agreements to protect biodiversity and developed national conservation policies. By signing the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1994, it implemented biodiversity conservation strategies. Under the “Strategy for the Conservation of Biodiversity in Russia” adopted in 2010, various projects are being carried out to protect endangered species and maintain ecosystem balance. However, industrial pollution and ecological imbalance in heavily industrialized regions make the government’s efforts in this area critical.
Under projects led by the environmental protection department under the Russian Presidential Administration, special measures are being taken to protect rare and endangered species. Conservation projects aimed at increasing the populations of species such as the Amur tiger, polar bear, Beluga whale, Far Eastern leopard and snow leopard are part of state-supported ecological programs.
In this context, Russia’s biodiversity is important for the sustainability of the global ecological balance. However, climate change, industrialization and human-induced threats require more effective measures to ensure the continuity of this biodiversity.
Russia has historically been home to various belief groups. Today, the most common religion is Russian Orthodoxy. The majority of the population is affiliated with the Russian Orthodox Church. Orthodoxy entered the country in 988 when Prince Vladimir of Kiev embraced Christianity. In 1448, the Moscow-based church began operating independently from Constantinople, and in 1589, a patriarchate was established in Moscow. During the Soviet Union, significant pressure was applied against religion: churches were closed and clergy were persecuted. With the 1988 celebrations of the 1,000th anniversary of Christianity, pressure on religion decreased and the Orthodox Church regained an influential position in society. Today, there are over 5,000 Orthodox religious institutions in the country. The close relationship between the state and the church enables the church to maintain its social and political influence.
The second most common religion in Russia is Islam. Approximately 20 million Muslims live in the country. Muslim communities began to exist on Russian lands in the 10th century after the Volga Bulgars adopted Islam. With the Russian conquest of Kazan in 1552 and Astrakhan in 1556, a large Muslim population came under Russian rule. During the Tsardom of Russia, pressure on Islam increased, and economic and social incentives were offered to Muslims to convert to Christianity. During the Soviet Union, mosques were closed and religious activities were banned. After 1990, Muslim communities reorganized, new mosques were built and religious freedoms were expanded. Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Chechnya, Dagestan and Ingushetia are regions with concentrated Muslim populations. Approximately 7,000 mosques operate in the country.
Buddhism is an influential belief system, especially in the eastern regions of the country. Buddhist populations are concentrated in the Republics of Buryatia, Tuva and Kalmykia. Buddhism is recognized as one of Russia’s four traditional religions. There are over 120 Buddhist temples and monasteries operating in the country.
Russia is officially a secular state, but the Russian Orthodox Church maintains close relations with the state. The 1997 Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations recognizes Orthodox Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Buddhism as traditional religions. Although all religions have equal status as Legal, the Russian Orthodox Church continues to be the most influential religious institution with state support. Mosque construction for Muslim communities has been supported, and Islamic institutions have expanded their activities. However, state control over religious minorities continues.
These holidays are officially designated as public holidays under Article 112 of the Russian Federation Work Law. In addition to official holidays, various commemorative days and professional holidays are observed for specific occupational groups.
Peterhof Palace is one of Russia’s most important historical and architectural structures. Built in the 18th century by Peter the Great, this palace was designed to rival royal palaces in Western Europe. Located west of St. Petersburg on the coast of the Baltic Sea, the structure is noted for its expansive gardens, fountains and Baroque architecture and is listed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
The palace complex consists of the Grand Palace, Upper Gardens, Lower Park and various pavilions. One of the most striking features is the “Grand Cascade,” a fountain system powered by natural water pressure. Additionally, the Monplaisir Palace, located on the coast of the Baltic Sea, served as Peter the Great’s private residence.
Today, Peterhof Palace is considered one of Russia’s most popular tourist destinations. Although it suffered significant harm during World War II, restoration efforts have returned it to its former state. The structure, noted for its artistic and architectural details, welcomes numerous visitors each year.
The Kremlin Palace is a historical and political structure located in Moscow, the capital of Russia. Built in the 15th century, this palace served for many years as the residence of Russian tsars and as the country’s administrative center. Today, the Kremlin serves as the official residence of the President of the Russian Federation. The palace is located within a large complex surrounded by high walls and contains many cathedrals, government buildings and museums.
Architecturally, the Kremlin is a collection of structures built by Russian and Italian masters. Within the palace complex are the Uspenski Cathedral, where the Tsar’s Crown ceremony was held, and important historical artifacts such as the Tsar Cannon and Tsar Bell. Additionally, the Grand Kremlin Palace, built in the 19th century, is notable for its gilded, magnificent halls.
Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990, the Kremlin Palace is considered one of the most important symbols of Russia’s historical and cultural heritage. Today, certain sections are open to tourists, and the palace complex attracts attention both for its historical structures and its strategic role as the center of state administration.
Red Square is one of Moscow’s historical and cultural areas. Located east of the Kremlin Palace, this square has witnessed many important events in Russian history. Created after the completion of the Kremlin’s walls in the 15th century, it gradually became the city’s center. Throughout history, it has been the site of executions, military parades, political rallies and celebrations. Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990 along with the Kremlin, the square holds both tourist and cultural significance.
The Bolshoi Theatre is a cultural landmark in Moscow and serves as the center of opera and ballet arts. Designed and built in 1824 by architect famous Joseph Bové, the theater is a magnificent structure reflecting Russia’s artistic and architectural heritage. Throughout history, the Bolshoi Theatre has hosted numerous classic masterpieces, including premieres of Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake (1877) and Marius Petipa’s Don Quixote (1869).
The Moscow Metro is more than just a public transportation system; it is an architecturally striking structure. Metro stations built during the Soviet era were designed to reflect the artistic and ideological outlook of the period. The majority of stations resemble underground palaces with their wide arches, marble cladding, mosaics and sculptures.
St. Basil’s Basil Cathedral is a historical structure located on Red Square in Moscow. Built between 1555 and 1561 on the orders of Tsar Ivan IV to commemorate the victory over the Khanate of Kazan, the cathedral is considered one of the most important examples of Russian Orthodox church architecture and is designed as a complex of ten separate chapels.
The building’s architecture is shaped by Russian and Byzantine influences, with colorful domes and interior decorations drawing attention. The interior features frescoes and religious icons, with walls adorned with botanical motifs and depictions of saints. A chapel dedicated to St. Basil was added in 1588, expanding the building’s religious and cultural functions over time. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the cathedral is currently used as a museum. The structure is preserved as part of Moscow’s historical fabric and is open to visitors.
The Pushkin Beautiful Museum of Fine Arts is a museum located in Moscow and home to one of Russia’s largest art collections. Established in 1896 as a fine arts museum affiliated with Moscow University, the building designed by architect Roman Klein opened to the public in 1912. The museum’s founding purpose was to provide art education and offer a public art collection.
The museum’s collection encompasses a broad spectrum of art from antiquity to the modern era. Artifacts from ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome to European Renaissance paintings are exhibited. Additionally, the museum regularly hosts international exhibitions. The building’s design incorporates classical architectural elements, and its interior layout is arranged to support the display of artworks.
Taganay National Park is located in the Chelyabinsk Oblast of Russia, in the Southern Ural Mountains. It was designated as a national park in 1991. Covering an area of approximately 568 km², this region stands out for its ecosystem diversity and natural landscape.
The national park harbors flora and fauna characteristic of Siberia and Europe. Wildlife species such as bears, lynx and sables inhabit the region. Forested areas and rich vegetation make it an important destination for hiking and ecotourism. Hiking trails and natural observation areas are available for visitors.
Russia’s traditional crafts reflect original techniques and aesthetics developed over centuries in different geographic regions. Folk art (narodnıy promyisel) products made from Wood, kil, metal, fabric and other materials, passed down from generation to generation, are even considered symbols of Russian culture. For example, the wooden nesting dolls known as Matryoshka emerged in Russia in the 1890s. Although various legends exist regarding the origin of the hollow wooden doll concept, the first Russian matryoshkas were produced in the late 19th century. Matryoshkas are generally carved from linden wood; the production process begins with the smallest, indivisible doll and continues by carving and nesting progressively larger dolls. The painted designs vary from traditional peasant girl figures to modern themes. Matryoshka, today a global symbol of Russian culture.
Another craft is the ceramic pottery tradition named after the village of Gzhel near Moscow. The Gzhel region has rich clay deposits, and ceramic production has been carried out since the Middle Era. The white base with blue designs associated with Gzhel porcelain emerged as an original style around the mid-19th century. Inspired by European and Chinese porcelain, these blue-and-white motifs took their current form with large floral and leafy compositions developed during the Soviet era. Exquisitely crafted Gzhel vases, plates and tea sets attract collectors not only in Russia but worldwide.
Hohloma (Khokhloma), developed in central and Volga regions of Russia, is a traditional wood decoration art. Golden yellow base with vibrant red and black botanical motifs on wooden spoons, bowls and trays are distinctive Hohloma products. This technique originated in the 17th century in villages of the Nizhny Novgorod region and took its name from the village of Hohloma, where craftsmen sold their products. Thanks to the Volga River, Hohloma items gained fame across vast regions from Central Asia to Iran and India. In Hohloma production, wooden items are first coated with a special clay-based primer, then treated with flax oil and coated with a metal (historically tin, now aluminum) in a dust state. Before firing, these shiny objects are hand-painted with silver-like patterns of flower, leaf, bird motifs. Finally, the product is varnished in several layers and fired; when varnish is complete, it turns golden and develops the characteristic Hohloma “honey gold” appearance. This laborious handcraft technique has made Hohloma tableware and decorative items a Russian folkloric symbol since the 18th century.
Palekh miniatures, originating from the Russian iconography tradition, are another unique craft. The village of Palekh was a renowned center of icon painting since the 17th century; after the 1917 Revolution, due to anti-religious policies, Palekh artists redirected their skills to a new field. Inspired by lacquer box production in Fedoskino, Palekh artisans began creating miniatures on papier-mâché boxes using egg-yolk-based tempera paint. From the 1920s onward, scenes from Russian fairy tales, epics and folk songs were painted on black lacquer backgrounds in a style preserving the delicacy and elegance of old icons.
Russian visual arts span a broad spectrum from icons to contemporary painting. The 19th-century literary environment influenced painting, and during this period, great novelists such as Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky provided inspiration for artists through the depth of their works.
In classical painting, Ivan Aivazovsky stormy sea scenes, and artists such as Ilya Repin and Vasily Surikov from the Wanderers movement gained fame by realistically depicting historical and social scenes. Repin, in particular, is known for his works deeply connected to the lives of the Russian people and is considered a defender of realism in art.
In the early 20th century, Russia hosted pioneering art movements. Within Russian Avant-garde, artists such as Kandinsky and Malevich produced works that challenged the boundaries of art. Kandinsky’s experimental paintings from the 1910s are considered the beginning of abstract art, and he is known as the “father of abstract art.”
During the Soviet period, art served official ideology under the Socialist Realism movement, but in the late 20th century, Russian painters created original works again within the global art context. Today, institutions such as the Tretyakov Gallery and the Hermitage Museum showcase the legacy of Russian visual arts.
In the 19th century, Russian classical music found its national identity with Mikhail Glinka, while groups such as The Mighty Handful brought folk melodies into artistic forms. Meanwhile, Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky is known for his achievements in symphonies, concertos, operas and ballet music. Tchaikovsky, known as “the most popular Russian composer of all time,” has works internationally recognized. His composition “Swan Lake” premiered in 1877 at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow and eventually became known as “the world’s most famous ballet.”
The Bolshoi Ballet Company, founded in 1776 within the Bolshoi Theatre, and the Mariinsky Ballet, active since the 18th century (formerly Kirov), represent classical ballet. Particularly, the Bolshoi Theatre has become a symbol of Russian culture as one of the world’s most famous opera and ballet stages. Dancers such as Anna Pavlova, Galina Ulanova, Maya Plisetskaya, Rudolf Nureyev and Mikhail Baryshnikov, who emerged from these institutions, are important figures in 20th-century ballet.
Russia possesses one of the world’s richest literary traditions. The 19th century is known as the “Golden Age of Russian Literature,” during which, following Aleksandr Pushkin’s poetic innovations, writers such as Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky wrote novels. Tolstoy, author of War and Peace and Anna Karenina, and Dostoevsky, author of Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov, hold significant places not only in Russian literature but in world literature. Alongside them, Nikolay Gogol, Ivan Turgenev, Anton Chekhov and others presented examples of Russian realism and psychological depth to the entire world. Their works, due to their treatment of universal human conditions, have been translated into many languages and introduced the concept of the “Russian soul” to global culture.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, Russian cinema has entered the film industry with “Stenka Razin” (1908), and during the silent film era, directors such as Eisenstein, Pudovkin, Vertov and Dovzhenko developed innovative techniques. Eisenstein’s “Battleship Potemkin” revolutionized cinematic language through montage. In the 1930s, during the socialist realism period, musical comedies and war films gained prominence; Nikolai Ekk made technological strides with Russia’s first sound (1931) and color (1936) films. In the post-Soviet period, directors such as Andrei Tarkovsky, Panfilov, Shukshin, Mikhalkov and Ryazanov achieved international success. Today, figures such as Andrey Zvyagintsev and Aleksey German are prominent.
Russian theatre, with roots dating back to the 17th century, began with its first performance in 1672 at the court. The theatre tradition rapidly developed under imperial support in the 18th century, solidified with the establishment of the first state theatre in 1756 and the Bolshoi Theatre in 1825. In the 19th century, Konstantin Stanislavski and Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko founded the Moscow Art Theatre in 1898, developing modern acting methods; Stanislavski’s “system” method became influential worldwide. During the Soviet period, figures such as Meyerhold and Lyubimov engaged in political theatre. Today, the annual Golden Mask Theatre Festival awards the country’s best theatre and opera-ballet productions, preserving the tradition.
Russia has achieved various successes in the field of sports. In the Olympic Games it has participated in, Russia has consistently ranked among the top positions in the medal standings. Particularly, the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics, hosted by Russia, holds a significant place in Russian sports history. Russian athletes won a total of 33 medals (13 gold, 11 silver, 9 bronze) in Sochi, topping the medal table and setting new national records in both gold medals and total medals.
Looking at Olympic history, when the Soviet Union and Russia are considered together, they possess a record-breaking accumulation in total medal count. Athlete Larisa Latynina held an unbroken record for half a century with her 18 Olympic medals (9 gold, 5 silver, 4 bronze) won in gymnastics between 1956 and 1964. This record, which remained unbroken for 48 years, was only surpassed in 2012 at the London Olympics by swimmer Michael Phelps.
Russia is particularly successful in artistic ice skating, gymnastics, ice hockey and chess. In ice skating, Soviet/Russian athletes have formed a school of excellence. Particularly in pairs figure skating, Soviet/Russian skaters won all Olympic gold medals from the 1964 Innsbruck Winter Olympics to the 2006 Torino Olympics.
In gymnastics, Russia has also achieved various successes. From 2000 Sydney to 2016 Rio, Russian athletes won all Olympic individual rhythmic gymnastics gold medals. Particularly, Evgeniya Kanayeva, winning consecutive Olympic golds in 2008 Beijing and 2012 London, earned the title of “the first and only gymnast to win Olympic gold twice in rhythmic gymnastics.”
Ice hockey is considered Russia’s (and the USSR’s) “national sport.” The Soviet ice hockey team, known as the “Red Machine,” won seven out of nine Winter Olympics it participated in between 1956 and 1988. In World Championship history, the Soviet Union won 22 world titles.
In recent years, Russia has enhanced its soft power by hosting large-scale international youth and cultural events. One of the newest is the World Youth Festival. Organized by the Russian Federation, this event was held from 1–7 March 2024 in the “Sirius” federal region in Sochi by presidential decree. Russia previously hosted the World Youth and Student Festivals in Moscow in 1957 and 1985 and in Sochi in 2017; with the 2024 event, it continues this tradition by bringing together young generations around the ideals of peace, cooperation and development.
Russian cuisine, continuing the old Slavic culinary culture, has been influenced by different cultures over time. In the 13th century, with the Mongol invasion, Russians learned meat-cooking methods, yogurt production and pickling techniques from the Mongols. From the 17th century onward, French cuisine also entered the tables of Russian nobility, and dishes such as Boeuf Stroganoff and Charlotte became popular.
Russian cuisine is very diverse in baked goods due to abundant grain production. Bread varieties such as Borodinskiy, rizhskiy and riga are fundamental to the cuisine. In addition, dishes such as pirozhki (filled poğaça), blini (thin dough pancakes), medovik, karpatka, pavlova and pelmeni (dumplings similar to mantı) are among the most well-known delicacies.
Desserts
The National Anthem of the Russian Federation, Gosudarstvenny Gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii (Госуда́рственный гимн Росси́йской Федера́ции), is the country’s official national anthem. Adopted in 2000, its melody was composed by Aleksandr Aleksandrov, who also composed the anthem of the Soviet Union. The lyrics were written by Sergey Mikhalkov. The lyrics emphasize Russia’s greatness, the unity of its peoples and the country’s historical heritage.
Kievan Rus' was the first East Slavic state, formed in the mid-9th century when East Slavic tribes invited the Varangian Rurik dynasty. Its capital, Kiev, was strategically located at the intersection of trade routes between the Khazar Khaganate and the Islamic world to the south and the Viking routes to the north. In 988, Prince Vladimir of Kiev adopted Orthodox Christianity, transforming the political and social structure of the country by establishing strong cultural ties with Byzantium. During the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' experienced its golden age under Yaroslav the Wise: written laws (Russkaya Pravda) were developed, and Kiev became an important cultural center of Eastern Europe. However, due to unclear succession rules, the state fragmented into regional principalities after Yaroslav’s death.
The most serious external threats faced by Kievan Rus' were Turkic steppe nomads, the Pechenegs and the Kipchaks. From the 9th century onward, Pecheneg raiders exerted pressure on the southern borders; for about two centuries, they launched intermittent raids into Russian lands and even besieged Kiev in 968. In the late 11th century, the Kipchaks (known as “Polovtsi” in Russian chronicles), who replaced the Pechenegs, similarly threatened the principality. These nomadic raids disrupted trade routes and caused destruction in villages, creating a breaking point in society; as central authority weakened, some regions had to rely on their own forces for defense.
In the 13th century, the Mongol-Turk invasion inflicted one of the greatest blows on Kievan Rus'. Under the command of Batu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, the Mongols destroyed major cities such as Ryazan, Vladimir and Kiev between 1237 and 1240. The fall of Kiev in 1240 was considered the end of the old political unity centered on Kiev. Batu Khan established the Golden There Horde in the city of Sarai in 1242, bringing Russian principalities under its dominance. Russian principalities became semi-autonomous, paying tribute to the Golden Horde for approximately 240 years. This period is referred to in Russian history as the “Tatar Yoke.”
However, Mongol rule also influenced the development of certain institutions in Russian lands. Particularly, the Orthodox Church gained relative autonomy through tax exemptions and protective privileges; church lands were exempt from taxes and clergy were exempt from military service.【17】 This allowed the Church to serve as a unifying social force during the Mongol period and preserve cultural heritage. Russian princes, while remaining subordinate to the Mongol khans, judgment their rule; this strengthened absolutist tendencies in local administrative structures. On the other hand, the Mongol invasion weakened Russia’s ties with the West, leading to economic and cultural isolation. This isolation is considered one of the reasons Russia followed a different development path from Western Europe in subsequent centuries.
Under Mongol dominance, the Principality of Moscow, initially just one of many principalities, rose to prominence from the 14th century onward through close cooperation and political strategy with the Golden Horde. The Muscovite princes gained the privilege of collecting tribute from other principalities on behalf of the Golden Horde, thereby acquiring economic power. Particularly during the reign of Prince Ivan Kalita (1325–1340), Moscow began to annex neighboring principalities thanks to its stable governance and good relations with the Mongol Khan. In 1380, under the leadership of Dmitri Donskoy, Russian forces achieved the first victory against the Golden Horde army in the Battle of Kulikovo. This victory boosted Russian morale and strengthened Moscow’s leadership claims; however, Mongol dominance continued for some time. In 1480, during a confrontation at the Ugra River, Ivan III rejected the Golden Horde’s tribute demands without engaging in battle, and the Mongol army withdrew. This event is considered the end of the Tatar Yoke. Ivan III, who ruled from 1462 to 1505, annexed independent Russian principalities such as Novgorod (1478) and Tver (1485); his successor, Vasili III, annexed the last independent regions: Pskov (1510) and Ryazan (1521).
Thus, Moscow unified a large portion of Russian lands under a single flag, becoming a centralized power. Ivan III viewed himself as the successor to the rulers of Rus' and adopted the legacy of the Byzantine Empire, governing Moscow with the ideology of “Third Rome.” Geographically, during this period, the center of the Russian state shifted from the south to the northeast (Moscow basin); trade routes were redirected toward the Volga and the White Sea, while former centers such as Kiev lost their importance.
In the 16th century, the Principality of Moscow embarked on building an empire. During the reign of Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible), grandson of Ivan III, a transformation occurred: on January 16, 1547, at age 16, Ivan discarded the traditional title of “prince” and was crowned “Tsar of All Rus'.” This marked a break symbolizing the Russian state’s claim as the successor to the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. With the title of Tsar, central authority strengthened; Ivan, to break the power of the boyar aristocracy, implemented a harsh internal politics known as the Oprichnina. During this period, the territorial expansion of the Tsardom of Russia accelerated. Ivan IV conquered the Khanate of Kazan in 1552 and the Khanate of Astrakhan in 1556, bringing the Tatar states along the Volga under his control.
Thus, for the first time, Russian borders reached the Caspian Sea and the foothills of the Urals; former Golden Horde territories were fragmented and incorporated into Russia. These conquests made Russia the ruler of vast steppe regions inhabited by numerous ethnic groups, mostly Muslim-Turkic peoples. Indeed, with the fall of Kazan, the Kazan Tatars, Bashkirs and various Turkic tribes became subjects of the Tsardom. Ivan’s eastward expansion reached as far as the Siberian Khanate: in 1582, a Cossack leader named Yermak Timofeyevich defeated the Siberian Khan, initiating Russian expansion into Western Siberia. Thus, the Tsardom of Russia expanded into the heart of Eurasia.
In internal administration, a weakening of state authority was observed after Ivan. The period from 1598 to 1613, known as the “Time of Troubles,” was a crisis marked by interregnum, throne conflicts, famine and Polish-Lithuanian intervention.
In 1610, Poles briefly occupied Moscow. However, the Russian people and Russian elites, led by Minin and Pozharski, launched a national uprising in 1612 and recaptured Moscow. In 1613, the Zemsky Sobor (Assembly of the Land) elected Mikhail Romanov as tsar, initiating a new dynasty. The Romanov Dynasty brought approximately 300 years of stability. Mikhail and his successors ended the civil war and reestablished central authority.
In the 17th century, Russia’s society structure also changed: due to increasing tax burdens and the destruction caused by wars, peasants became more tightly bound to landowners, and in 1649, serfdom (a system similar to slavery) was legalized. Although this increased social tensions, it facilitated the administration of the vast imperial territories by the aristocracy.
In foreign relations, an important early development was the seeds of Russian-Ottoman rivalry. In the late 17th century, Russia entered wars with the Ottoman Empire and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, seeking access to the Black Sea. In 1686, Russia joined the Holy Alliance and launched large-scale campaigns against the Ottomans (after the Second Siege of Vienna). Through the Azov Campaigns (1695–96), the young Tsar Peter I (Peter the Great) captured the Ottoman fortress of Azov, securing Russia’s first access to the Black Sea. However, after the Pruth River Campaign, the Ottomans recaptured Azov, rescuing Poland from Russian pressure. These events marked the beginning of a long-standing Russian-Ottoman rivalry.
This early period culminated in the incorporation of a vast territory stretching from the Eastern European plains to the Ural Mountains, from the Baltic forests in the north to the Black Sea steppes in the south under Russian rule. By the 1700s, the Tsardom of Russia had become a major power in both Europe and Asia and now set its sights on imperial status.
The Russian Empire was established in 1721 when the Senate proclaimed Peter the Great (Peter I) as “Emperor.” This event marked a significant dunum point, symbolizing Russia’s transition from a mere Eastern European kingdom to a multiethnic world empire. Peter, following his victory in the Great Northern War (1700–1721) against Sweden, seized the Baltic coast and made St. Petersburg the capital. The new capital, built as a window to the West, laid the foundations of the empire’s identity through Peter’s comprehensive Westernization reforms.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Russian Empire frequently clashed with the Ottoman Empire. The Russo-Ottoman wars, occurring approximately 12 times from the late 17th century to the 19th century, were a long series of conflicts that shook the Eurasian power balance. Initially, the Ottomans, through their vassal the Crimean Khanate, controlled territories north of the Black Sea and kept Russia under pressure. As the Principality of Moscow grew stronger from the late 15th century, the Ottomans and Russians began to confront each other in Eastern Europe and the Black Sea region. By the 17th century, the Ottoman state began to perceive Russia as a threat, and relations were generally shaped by conflicts.
The Russian Empire was also in intense interaction with many Turkic Muslim peoples within and around its borders. The expansion of Tsardom Russia led to the change of governance for numerous Turkic peoples.
In domestic policy, the imperial administration struggled to manage this multiethnic structure. Even during Catherine II’s reign, administrators recognized the difficulty of assimilating the empire’s “new subjects.” The state, on one hand, promoted the Russian language and Orthodoxy, while on the other, granted privileges to local nobles to establish balance. This situation planted the seeds of nationalist movements in regions such as Poland, the Baltics and the Caucasus. Similarly, among Turkic peoples, by the end of the 19th century, educated Tatar and Azerbaijani intellectuals began to show signs of national awakening.
The 1905 Revolution and the subsequent limited constitutional order (establishment of the Duma) indicated that the empire was beginning to crumble. The defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 and revolutionary wave affected the multiethnic structure. Representatives from Tatar, Azerbaijani, Kazakh and other communities entered the Duma and began voicing their demands. However, although the Tsarist regime made some concessions after 1905, it maintained its repressive stance.
Russia entered World War I in 1914, fighting on the Eastern Front against Germany and Austria-Hungary, and on the Caucasus Front against the Ottomans. The economic collapse and millions of casualties brought by the war internally collapsed the Russian Empire. The February Revolution in Petrograd in 1917 deposed Tsar Nicholas II, ending the 300-year Romanov dynasty. Although the Provisional Government briefly maintained power, in the same year’s October month, the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin seized power. Thus, the Russian Empire gave way to a far more radical governance and ideology.
After the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks seized power, a new state began to be built across much of the former Tsardom of Russia. The Russian Civil War (1917–1922) ended with the victory of the Bolshevik Red Army, and on December 30, 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was established. The founding republics (Russian SFSR, Ukrainian SSR, Belarusian SSR, Transcaucasian SFSR) appeared to have equal rights; however, in practice, all decisions were made by the Communist Party leadership in Moscow, and local administrations complied.
After Lenin’s death, Stalin, who assumed power, embarked on transforming the country with rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture starting in 1928. During this process, peasants’ land and livestock were seized, and those who resisted were violently suppressed. In World War II, despite Nazi Germany’s invasion, the USSR emerged victorious in 1945 and incorporated Eastern Europe into its own influence sphere. In the ensuing bipolar world after the war, the nuclear arms race and space race positioned the Soviet Union as a global power.
The multiethnic structure of the USSR became prominent through the consolidation of diverse peoples under a single roof. In Central Asia, the “Drawing of Nations” policy created five separate republics (Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan); these borders often divided ethnic groups to serve a “divide and rule” tactic. Soviet rule, especially during World War II, forcibly deported certain Turkic and Muslim communities, such as the Crimean Tatars and Ahiska Turks, labeling them collectively as “homeland traitors” and relocating them to Central Asia. During these deportations, many people died from starvation and disease.
The Afghan War, beginning in 1979, and the economic stagnation of the 1980s deepened the problems within the Soviet system. Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies of Perestroika (restructuring) and Glasnost (openness), launched in 1985, weakened central authority and strengthened suppressed nationalist movements. As communist regimes collapsed in Eastern Bloc countries in 1989, the Baltic republics declared independence, and leaders such as Yeltsin in the Russian SFSR began challenging Moscow.
After the failed August coup in August 1991, the Soviet Union rapidly entered a dissolution process. On December 8, 1991, the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus declared the dissolution of the USSR and established the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). On December 25, Gorbachev resigned, and the next day the Soviet Union officially ceased to exist. Thus, 15 republics declared independence. Turkic republics such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Azerbaijan gained the opportunity to establish their own nation-states for the first time. However, the complex ethnic borders drawn during the Soviet period and the presence of Russian minorities in the region continued to be a source of tension.
The Russian Federation, emerging from the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, carried historical continuity but was a new state. Under Boris Yeltsin’s leadership, the new Russia attempted an abrupt transition to a multiparty democracy and free-market market economy. As a result of rapid privatization known as “Shock therapy,” state-owned factories and natural resources were transferred at very low prices to oligarchs (powerful families with unknown sources of income). Russia in the 1990s was shaken by economic collapse, hyperinflation, organized crime and political instability; the government suspended debt payments in 1998, and the ruble lost value. At the same time, Yeltsin’s administration, engaged in war against separatist movements in Chechnya, lost international influence due to its weakening state authority.
In 1999, Yeltsin transferred power to Vladimir Putin. From the 2000s onward, Putin strengthened the central state, ensured economic stability and broke the influence of oligarchs. Thanks to rising oil and natural gas prices, Russia’s GDP grew rapidly, people’s incomes increased, and the chaos of the 1990s eased. However, this development was largely based on state-controlled strategic sectors and raw material exports, leading to the formation of a “new oligarch” class around the Kremlin. Politically, opposition and dissent were largely brought under control; federal governors were appointed, reinforcing authoritarian governance.
In foreign policy, Putin’s era emphasized efforts to regain former spheres of influence. The 2008 war with Georgia, the 2014 annexation of Crimea, and the 2015 intervention in Syria solidified Russia’s renewed claim to global power. These steps increased tensions with the West, but the Russian Federation, due to its vast geography and nuclear arsenal, became an important balancing element in the international system. The war in Ukraine, beginning in 2022, has reopened debate on Russia’s position in world politics, but the country continues to be influential in the global power balance by preserving its historical legacy and imperial ambitions.
[1]
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