Kazakhstan

Kazakhstan, the largest country by area in Central Asia, is one of the region’s most active actors with a territory of 2.724.900 square kilometers and a population of approximately 20 million. Bordered by People's Republic of China to the east, Russian Federation to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan to the south, and the Caspian Sea to the west, Kazakhstan has historically been a crossroads of major trade and culture routes due to its geopolitical position. In 1991, Kazakhstan declared its independence on 16 December, establishing a presidential system of government and rapidly evolving into a dynamic state. The capital Astana represents the country’s modern face, while Almaty and Chimkent like cities hold key cultural and economic dynamic roles among the nation’s place.

Kazakhstan is a country notable for its natural wealth, deep history, and multicultural structure. Characterized by vast steppes, high mountains, large lakes, and deserts, the country has a harsh land climate. Temperatures can drop as low as -45°C in Winter months and exceed 40°C in summer. This geographical and climatic diversity has made Kazakhstan an important habitat for various cultures and communities throughout history. While Kazakh is the official language, Russian is also widely spoken due to the legacy of the Soviet Union.

Economically, Kazakhstan possesses vast underground resources and has built a strong economic building through exports of oil, natural gas, uranium and mineral. In recent years, the country has sought to diversify its economy by developing the industry and agricultural sectors. Economic relations between Türkiye and Kazakhstan are steadily strengthening, with the Turkish construction sector making significant investments in the country. Kazakhstan’s steps toward becoming a prominent active actor on the international stage are supported by its membership in organizations such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the United Nations, and the Economic Cooperation Organization.

Kazakhstan stands out as one of the most important countries in the region due to its historical historical heritage, strategic strategic position, and natural wealth. The country is rapidly advancing its Modernization process while preserving traditional Kazakh culture and enhancing its global influence in economic and political spheres.

History

The territory of Kazakhstan has served as a transit point for numerous civilizations and peoples throughout history and has been under the rule of various states. This geographic region, encompassing the vast steppes, high mountains, and rich river valleys of Central Asia, has been a homeland for Turkic communities throughout history. Kazakhstan’s historical roots trace back to great steppe empires such as the Scythians, Huns, and Göktürks. Particularly from the 11th century onward, the Kazakh identity began to take shape.

The emergence of the name “Kazakh” on the historical stage is closely linked to developments following the Seljuk rule. After the westward migrations of the Turks from the 11th century onward, the Turkic communities remaining in Central Asia failed to preserve their independence and came under Mongol domination. With the rise of the Timurid Empire, various Turkic-Mongol groups reunited, but after Timur’s death, the region experienced major political instability. During this period, Turkic groups known as Kazakhs continued their nomadic lifestyle across the vast steppes, gradually developing their own governance systems.

In the 15th century, Kazakhs was united by Ebülhayr Han, laying the foundations of the Kazakh Khanate. However, the Khanate remained under constant threat due to pressure from Oirat Mongols and Russians. In the 16th century, the Kazakh Khanate experienced one of its most powerful periods, gaining control over important cities such as Taşkent and Samarkand. However, during the 17th and 18th centuries, the Kazakhs suffered major losses due to attacks by Jungar Mongols and internal conflicts. Small Volume Khan Abulhayr sought support from Russia, and this situation marked the beginning of Kazakhstan’s incorporation into Russian rule.

Russian Rule and the Soviet Era

In 1731, Russia began its expansion into Kazakh territories, particularly taking control of the Little Horde. By the early 19th century, the Russians had seized a large portion of Kazakhstan, replaced local governance systems, and began direct administration. The Kazakh people launched numerous uprising against Russian rule, but most of these uprisings were unsuccessful.

In the early 20th century, Kazakh intellectuals initiated national awakening movements and demonstrated efforts to preserve Kazakh identity. However, after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, Kazakhstan joined the Soviet Union and in 1920 became the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. During the Soviet period, a large-scale assimilation policy was implemented: the Kazakh language and culture were suppressed, and mosques and religious structures were closed. Simultaneously, in the 1930s, Soviet agricultural collectivization policies led to widespread famine, resulting in the deaths of millions of Kazakhs.

Independence Era

With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared its independence on December 16, 1991, becoming an independent state governed by a presidential system. The 1993 constitution officially designated Kazakh as the state language, although Russian continued to be used in state administration. A constitutional amendment in 1995 strengthened the presidential system and reorganized the country’s administrative structure.

After independence, Kazakhstan took significant steps in economic development and political stability, strengthened its regional and global relations through membership in international organizations. Today, Kazakhstan continues to maintain its position as an important economic and political actor in Eurasia and is rapidly advancing its modernization process.

National Anthem

Geography

Kazakhstan is the largest country in Central Asia and, with an area of 2.724.900 square kilometers, is one of the world’s largest landlocked countries. It is bordered by the Russian Federation to the north, the People’s Republic of China to the east, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan to the south, Turkmenistan to the southwest, and the Caspian Sea to the west.

Topography and Land Structure

A large part of Kazakhstan consists of plains, steppes, and gently rolling plateaus. In the east and southeast, the extensions of the Tian Şan (God Mountains) and the Altai Mountains are located, while the interior and west regions are characterized by vast plains, deserts, and semi-desert areas.

The Altai Mountains in the east include some of Kazakhstan’s highest points, extending into Russia and Mongolia. The Tian Shan Mountains in the southeast extend to the borders of Kyrgyzstan and China and are home to high mountain lakes and glaciers.

The interior regions of the country are largely covered by vast steppes and semi-desert areas. The southern regions of Kazakhstan form the typical desert ecosystem of Central Asia. The western part of the country extends to the Caspian Sea coast, while the northern regions feature extensive steppe areas that meet the Siberian plains.

Water Resources and Lakes

Kazakhstan has numerous major rivers and lakes. Its most important rivers include the Irtysh, Ishim, Tobol, Ural, and Emba. The Irtysh, Ishim, and Tobol rivers flow northward into the Arctic Ocean, while the Ural and Emba rivers drain into the Caspian Sea. One of the most important rivers in the south, the Syr Darya, flows into the Aral Sea.

Kazakhstan is also rich in Lake and is home to some of Central Asia’s largest lakes. Lake Balkhash, located in the east, is one of the rare lakes that contain both fresh and saline water waters. The Aral Sea was one of the region’s largest water sources but has largely dried up due to environmental changes during the Soviet era.

Vegetation and Natural Areas

Kazakhstan’s vast geography features diverse plant cover and ecosystems. The northern regions are covered by fertile steppes, while the interior and western regions consist of semi-desert and desert ecosystems. Dense shrublands and forested areas are found along river valleys, and extensive pine forests cover mountain slopes.

The southern regions of the country are part of Central Asia’s dry desert zones. The Syr Darya valley and other river basins have relatively denser vegetation. Forested areas in Kazakhstan are generally found at high altitudes and are predominantly covered by pine trees.

Natural Resources and Economic Importance

Kazakhstan is a country rich in underground resources. It possesses significant reserves of oil, natural gas, coal, uranium, copper, lead, zinc, iron, nickel, and manganese. The Karaganda region is known for its coal deposits, while the Ural-Emba basin is rich in oil reserves. Other minerals such as bauxite, tungsten, molybdenum, and gold also play an important role in Kazakhstan’s economy.

Kazakhstan has a diverse geography characterized by vast plains, mountainous areas, rivers, lakes, and rich natural resources. This geographical structure shapes economic and social dynamics across numerous sectors, from agriculture and mining to transportation networks and city planning.

Climate

Kazakhstan has a harsh continental climate due to its large area and distance from seas. Seasons are distinct: winters are very cold and summers are hot and dry. Annual temperature variations are wide, and significant climatic differences exist between regions.

In winter, temperatures in Kazakhstan can drop as low as -45°C in the north. Particularly under the influence of arctic air masses, the northern regions experience freezing cold, while temperatures in the south are somewhat higher. Astana is known as one of the world’s coldest capitals and is notable for its severe winter conditions.

Spring is generally short and variable. This period, lasting from April mid to May end, sees rapid temperature increases, but weather remains highly unstable; a warm day can be followed by an abrupt cold front. Summer is hot and dry. Summer begins in late May and lasts until September mid. In southern regions, temperatures can exceed 40°C during time time. In the southern parts of the country, summer temperatures can reach up to +49°C. Autumn begins in late September and lasts until November early. During this period, temperatures drop rapidly and night frosts begin to occur.

All four seasons are clearly experienced across Kazakhstan, with significant temperature differences. The country’s highest recorded temperature is +49°C in Turkistan, and the lowest is -57°C in Atbasar. Climate conditions vary according to the country’s geography, resulting in different weather patterns across regions.

Demographics

With a population of approximately 20 million, Kazakhstan is one of the largest countries in Central Asia. The country’s population structure has been shaped by various migration movements and Soviet Union policies throughout history. According to the 1997 census, the ethnic composition was as follows: 40% Russian, 38% Kazakh, 6.1% Ukrainian, 2.1% Tatar, 1.3% German, and 7.1% other ethnic groups. However, after independence, demographic changes occurred due to migration of Russians and other groups to Russia and other former Soviet states, raising the Kazakh population share to 56.6%.

Today, Kazakhstan’s ethnic structure consists of 63% Kazakh, 24% Russian, 2.1% Ukrainian, 1.4% Uyghur, 1.3% Tatar, 1.1% German, and 7.1% other groups. This diversity makes Kazakhstan a multi-ethnic society and forms its cultural mosaic.

In terms of religious structure, 47% of Kazakhstan’s population is Muslim, 44% is Russian Orthodox, 2% is Protestant, and 7% belong to other faiths. Although the country is secular, Islam and Orthodoxy are the most widespread religious beliefs.

Urbanization and Population Distribution

In Kazakhstan, the population is unevenly distributed between urban and rural areas. The majority of the Kazakh population lives in rural areas, while a significant portion of the Russian population is concentrated in cities. The capital Astana (formerly Nur-Sultan) is the country’s political and administrative center and has a rapidly growing population. Other major cities include the former capital Almaty (1.1 million), Chimkent (360,000), Taraz (330,000), Karaganda (437,000), and Öskemen (311,000).

Kazakhstan has a very high literacy rate. The country’s literacy rate has reached nearly 98%. The education system has a strong infrastructure inherited from the Soviet era, and Kazakhstan has a well-educated and technologically advanced population.

International Relations

After declaring its independence on December 16, 1991, Kazakhstan quickly assumed an active role on the international stage and became a member of numerous regional and global organizations. The country was recognized by Türkiye upon gaining independence and joined the United Nations (UN) on 2 March 1992. Kazakhstan is a member of the UN, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA), the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), Organization of Turkic States (TDT), and the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Relations with Türkiye

Türkiye was the first country to recognize Kazakhstan’s independence, and relations between the two countries have reached the level of strategic partnership. The 2009 Strategic Partnership Agreement further strengthened ties, and the High-Level Strategic Cooperation Council (HLSCC) was established in 2012. The two countries jointly advanced the institutionalization of the Summit of Turkic-Speaking Countries and played a leading role in the formation of the Turkic Council and TÜRKPA (Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-Speaking Countries). Kazakhstan also hosts the International Turkic Academy.

Political and economic relations between Kazakhstan and Türkiye are maintained within an institutional framework through regular meetings of the High-Level Strategic Cooperation Council, the Joint Strategic Planning Group, and Karma Economic Commission meetings.

Relations with NATO

Kazakhstan initiated formal relations with NATO in 1992 by joining the North Atlantic Cooperation Council (NACC). In 1995, Kazakhstan joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace (PfP) program and has since conducted numerous military reform. Since 2002, Kazakhstan has participated in the PfP Planning and Review Process (PARP), strengthening military cooperation with NATO allies.

Kazakhstan regularly conducts military training and exercises with NATO, particularly hosting the annual “Steppe Eagle” military exercises since 2006. Kazakhstan’s Partnership for Peace Education Center (KAZCENT) was officially recognized by NATO in 2010 as a training center, providing military education for NATO allies and partner countries.

Kazakhstan cooperates with NATO under the Defense Education Enhancement Program (DEEP), working to align its military educational institutions—such as the Kazakhstan Defense University, the KAZCENT, the Astana Officer Training Center, and the Army Defense Institute—with international standards.

Regional and Global Cooperation

Kazakhstan places great importance on regional cooperation aimed at ensuring peace and stability in the Eurasian region. In this context, the country actively participates in regional integration processes such as the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). Kazakhstan also plays a significant role within the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and maintains economic and security cooperation with China.

Kazakhstan demonstrates commitment within the framework of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), supporting initiatives to develop trade and infrastructure projects in Central Asia. It leads initiatives such as the Conference on Interaction and Confidence-Building Measures in Asia (CICA) to promote regional security cooperation. Additionally, Kazakhstan has provided international assistance in response to natural disasters and humanitarian crises, responding to eight aid requests under the Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Centre (EADRCC) framework.

Kazakhstan has joined numerous global and regional organizations. As a country maintaining close relations with actors such as Türkiye, NATO, the SCO, the CIS, and the EAEU, it deepens economic and political cooperation to contribute to regional peace and stability. Furthermore, it has become a key actor in trade, energy, and security in the Eurasian region.

Armed Forces of Kazakhstan

After gaining independence, Kazakhstan implemented various reforms to strengthen its military structure. According to the 1993 Constitution, the country is defined as an independent and sovereign state governed by a presidential system, with armed forces directly under the command of the president. The two-chamber structure of the Kazakh Parliament, consisting of the Senate and the Majilis, approves national security policies and military budget.

Military Structure and Organization

The Kazakh military consists of three main branches: ground forces, air and air defense forces, and sea forces. Due to its strategic location, military organization is largely focused on border security with Russia, China, and Central Asian countries.

Following administrative reforms in 1997, the structure of the Kazakh military was reorganized, and the number of military regions was reduced. Military units within the country are managed by generals appointed by the Commander-in-Chief.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan inherited significant quantities of Soviet-made weapons and equipment but has since initiated modernization efforts. Particularly for its air and ground forces, new systems from Western and Russian manufacturers have been acquired.

Cooperation with NATO and Peacekeeping Operations

Kazakhstan joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace (PfP) program in 1995, strengthening international military cooperation. Since 2002, Kazakhstan has participated in the PfP Planning and Review Process (PARP), working to increase its military compatibility with NATO allies.

The country regularly conducts military training and exercises with NATO, particularly hosting the annual “Steppe Eagle” military exercises since 2006. Kazakhstan’s Partnership for Peace Education Center (KAZCENT) was officially recognized by NATO in 2010 as a training center, providing military education for NATO allies and partner countries.

Kazakhstan, under NATO’s Defense Education Enhancement Program (DEEP), is working to bring its military educational institutions—including the Kazakhstan Defense University and the Astana Officer Training Center—to meet international standards.

Regional Military Cooperation and Defense Policies

Kazakhstan maintains military cooperation not only with NATO but also with regional organizations such as the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). The country participates in military exercises with Russia and other former Soviet states under the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO).

Kazakhstan’s national defense strategy is based on protecting the country’s land, air, and maritime borders and enhancing regional security cooperation. Military cooperation continues with China and Russia, including joint exercises and technical support agreements. Kazakhstan also contributes to international humanitarian operations under the Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Centre (EADRCC) and provides international support in combating natural disasters.

Since gaining independence, Kazakhstan has taken significant steps to modernize its military and enhance international cooperation. The country, developing strong relations with organizations such as NATO, CIS, SCO, and CSTO, aims to contribute to regional and global security. With emphasis on peacekeeping operations, disaster response, and military exercises, Kazakhstan strengthens its role in both Central Asian and global security policies, as dictated by its strategic position.

Economy

The Kazakh economy is based on agriculture, livestock, industry, and energy sectors. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan entered an economic transformation process, rebuilding its economic structure through privatization policies and foreign investment.

Economic Data and Trade

In recent years, the Kazakh economy has shown steady growth. As of 2019, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was recorded at $96.1 billion. There is a notable imbalance between exports and imports in the country’s foreign trade.

Kazakhstan aims to reach a trade volume of $10 billion and is implementing various reforms to increase export diversification.

Main Export and Import Products

Exports: Kazakhstan’s main exported products include prefabricated structures, jewelry and components, seeds, cereals, and dried legumes.

Imports: The country’s most imported products include refined copper, unprocessed zinc, petroleum gases, and other gaseous hydrocarbons.

Industry and Energy Sector

During the Soviet era, Kazakhstan was used as a raw material source for Russia, and its production industry did not develop. As a result of privatization policies implemented in 1993 and 1994, state-owned economic facilities were transferred to the private sector, leading to the formation of monopolistic structures in various sectors.

Kazakhstan is a country rich in underground resources. Oil, natural gas, and mineral resources hold a significant place in the national economy. Exports of oil, gold, and gas have been increasing in recent years. Particularly, coal is mined in the Karaganda region and oil in the Ural-Emba basin. In addition, the country is rich in copper, lead, zinc, iron, manganese, tin, nickel, tungsten, molybdenum, antimony, arsenic, and bauxite. Furthermore, salt production is carried out from lakes in Kazakhstan.

Major industrial centers include Karaganda (machine and textile industry), Balkhash (copper smelting and iron and steel industry), and various food processing facilities across the country.

Agriculture and Livestock

Kazakhstan is known as an agricultural and livestock country. The steppes in the north and the pastures in the south are considered the most suitable areas for livestock farming. Additionally, irrigated agriculture is gradually developing, and cotton and rice production are increasing. Fruit cultivation also holds an important place in the national economy.

Turkish Investments and Construction Sector

Turkish investments in Kazakhstan are concentrated in the food, pharmaceutical and chemical industry, construction, hospitality, and manufacturing sectors. Turkish construction companies play a significant role in Kazakhstan’s economic activities. To date, nearly 500 projects with a total value of $24.4 billion have been implemented in Kazakhstan by Turkish firms.

The Kazakh economy has a structure based on oil and natural gas exports. At the same time, agriculture and livestock sectors form the foundational pillars of the national economy. The industrial sector is developing, particularly in mining and energy, which are of great investment importance. The Kazakh government aims to sustain economic growth by increasing trade volume and strengthening the industrial sector.

Tourism

Kazakhstan has great potential for tourism due to its vast territory, natural beauty, and cultural diversity. The country, which encompasses a wide range of geographical areas from mountains to deserts and from lakes to valleys, is an important destination for nature and ecotourism. In addition, its historical structures, Soviet-era heritage, and modern cities make it attractive for cultural and urban tourism.

Nature and Ecotourism

In an era when natural beauty is increasingly disappearing worldwide, Kazakhstan stands out with its vast and undisturbed natural areas. The country’s main nature tourism attraction centers include:

• Charyn Canyon: One of Kazakhstan’s most striking natural formations, this canyon attracts tourists with its deep valleys and red rock cliffs.
• Big Almaty Lake: This turquoise lake surrounded by mountains is a popular destination for hiking and photography.
• Altai Mountains and Heavenly Mountains: Ideal for mountaineering, trekking, and camping due to their high altitudes and green valleys.
• Issyk Lake and Balkhash Lake: Among the centers of nature tourism due to their clear waters and unique ecosystems.
• Kazakh steppes: Offer a unique opportunity for those wishing to experience nomadic culture through their vast plains.

The traditional Kazakh respect for nature, inherited from ancestors, is an essential part of ecotourism. Traditions reflecting the nomadic past embody a philosophy of living in harmony with the natural environment.

Cultural and Historical Tourism

Kazakhstan possesses a rich heritage for visitors interested in cultural tourism, shaped by its nomadic culture, ancient settlements, and Soviet-era architecture.

Historical and Architectural Structures

• Underground Mosques and Memorial Tombs: These structures from the Middle Ages are among the most important monuments of Kazakhstan’s Islamic and Turkic history.
• Oral Ruins and Arslan Baba Mausoleum: Significant structures of the Turkic-Islamic civilization and appealing destinations for history enthusiasts.
• Soviet-Era Architecture: Stalinist architecture and Soviet-era buildings offer an intriguing experience for tourists interested in Kazakhstan’s modern history.

Nomadic Culture and Traditional Life

The nomadic heritage holds an important place in Kazakhstan’s cultural tourism. Traditional Kazakh culture is kept alive through yurts, equestrian sports, traditional music, and people dances. These cultural elements are presented to tourists through festival and events.

Urban Tourism: Astana and Almaty

The cities of Kazakhstan are attractions that combine historical and modern architecture.

Astana (Nur-Sultan):

Almaty:

Transportation and Tourism Infrastructure

Kazakhstan offers tourists a comfortable experience through its developed transportation infrastructure and accommodation facilities.

Aviation

• The country has 20 major airports, 11 of which are open to international flights.

Rail Transport

• A 15,000-kilometer railway network is one of the most important transportation links connecting Kazakhstan with neighboring countries.
• There are 16 border crossing points with Russia, China, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan.

Urban Transportation

• Bus and tram lines operate in all cities.
• Almaty has a metro system.
• Taxi services are widely used as an alternative to public transport.
• Bicycle-sharing systems are popular in major cities during summer months.

Culture

Kazakhstan possesses a rich cultural heritage shaped by its nomadic past, multicultural structure, and traditional values. Throughout history, the country has hosted various ethnic groups and integrated their cultural elements. At the same time, the Kazakhs have preserved the influences of their nomadic lifestyle and continue to maintain their traditions.

Hospitality is one of the foundational pillars of Kazakh culture. Kazakhs welcome guests with great respect and offer them traditional dishes. Due to their nomadic heritage, at breeding and equestrian sports are among Kazakhstan’s important cultural elements.

Kazakhs place great importance on preserving their traditional music, handicrafts, and folk dances. The dombra holds a significant place in Kazakh music. This traditional instrument, often accompanying poetic narratives sung by Kazakh poets and folk bards (cyrav and aqyn), is central to their musical expression. Traditional festivals and holidays in the country are important events that sustain the people’s cultural values. Novruz, celebrating the arrival of spring, is one of the most important festivals and is celebrated with great enthusiasm as nature awakens.

Although Kazakh culture was subjected to assimilation policies during the Soviet period, it was revitalized after independence, with national identity brought to the forefront. Today, traditional yurts, equestrian sports, folk dances, and traditional clothing constitute the fundamental elements of Kazakh culture.

National and Religious Holidays

New Year: 1–2 January

Women’s Day: March 8

Novruz: March 21–23

Unity Day: May 1

Astana Day: June 6

Constitution Day: July 30

Republic Day: October 25

Independence Day: December 16

Kazakh Cuisine

Kazakh cuisine is characterized by its nomadic lifestyle influences and meat-based dishes. Traditional Kazakh meals are primarily based on animal products such as horse, lamb, and beef meat, as well as dairy products. Additionally, grain and flour-based foods hold an important place in the cuisine.

Main Kazakh Dishes

• Beshbarmak: The most famous dish of Kazakh cuisine. Its name means “five fingers,” and it is traditionally eaten by hand. Boiled horse or lamb meat is served with wide-cut dough pieces. It is an indispensable ceremonial dish.
• Kuyrdak: A traditional dish prepared with sheep or cattle offal. It is considered especially delicious when made with freshly slaughtered meat.
• Kazy and Shujuk: Traditional Kazakh sausages made from horse meat. Usually served on special occasions and to honored guests.
• Baursak: A key component of Kazakh cuisine, consisting of deep-fried dough pieces. This food can also be consumed as a sweet and is commonly prepared during holidays and celebrations.
• Samsa: A type of pastry baked in an oven, with minced meat or meat pieces inside the dough.
• Manti: Large dumplings steamed with a filling typically made of minced meat and onions.

Dairy Products and Beverages

Dairy products hold an important place in Kazakh cuisine. In line with the nomadic lifestyle, fermented dairy products are commonly consumed.

• Kumis: A traditional fermented beverage made from mare’s milk. It has a slightly sour taste and is believed to have health benefits.
• Shubat: A beverage made from camel’s milk. Similar to kumis, it has a sour taste and high nutritional value.
• Ayran and Kaymak: Important dairy products in daily consumption.