This article was automatically translated from the original Turkish version.
Food additives are substances permitted to be used in the production, processing, preparation, packaging, transportation, or storage of food to preserve, correct, or prevent undesirable changes in the taste, smell, appearance, building and other qualities of food, even though they are not consumed as food themselves nor used as raw or auxiliary ingredients and may or may not have nutritional value, and may remain as residues or derivatives in the final product according to the requirements of selected technology. This definition encompasses all substances consumed or ingested by humans in raw, semi-processed or complete processed forms, including beverages and chewing gum, as well as substances used in preparation and processing, excluding those used as food, tobacco and only drugs. This definition does not include contaminants—chemical substances that unintentionally contaminate food. Food contaminants are foreign substances of plant, animal and soil origin, drug residues, metallic and biological contamination, harmful plastic substance affecting human health, and residues of detergents, disinfectants and radioactive substances.
The history of food safety is as old as human history. Humans began confronting food safety issues with the first domesticated animal species around 8000 BCE. Between 3000 and 900 BCE, meat products were preserved by salting, smoking over wood, or coating with cheese and wax. The advanced pastoralists of Babylon and Sumer stored milk safely in narrow-necked containers (circa 3000 BCE). Egyptians used colorants in their food around 1500 BCE. Moses established health protection rules regarding the meat of slaughtered animals. Additionally, ancient Jews around 1300 BCE had developed diagnostic experience to identify cirrhosis, degeneration, and tuberculosis in animal livers. The Roman Empire established an official police organization to conduct health inspections for food safety (circa 400 BCE). The Huns discovered that meat could be preserved for long periods by making sausages, pastirma, and kavurma (circa 220 BCE). Native Americans stored meat by freezing it. Around 50 BCE, the use of wood smoke and especially spices as preservatives increased. In 772 CE, Turks preserved meat by roasting and dried milk, as recorded in the Dede Korkut Epic. During the Middle Ages, it became mandatory in Germany to carry out slaughtering collectively in designated locations (1276). In the Ottoman Empire, 33 slaughterhouses were constructed to ensure safe distribution of meat, and specific regulations on food safety were incorporated into the ihtisap laws (strict oversight of food and drink consumed by the public, equivalent to modern-day municipal inspection) (1485). Food safety received attention during the reign of II. Bayezid (1501). Official inspections of meat slaughtering and marketing became widespread around 1580. In France, the use of food dyes to mask fish spoilage was banned in 1662. The first veterinary school in Europe was established in France (1762). The Boston Food Hygiene Law was adopted in the United States in 1773. Napoleon established the first public slaughterhouse in France in 1807. The first veterinary school in the Ottoman period opened in 1842. The use of “Aniline Purple” as an artificial dye began in 1856. During the American-Spanish War, an agreement was reached that veterinary physicians required advanced training in Food Control to ensure the safety of soldiers’ food (1889). This issue was implemented by the Republic of Turkey between 1924 and 1933 through the armed forces (Gemlik Military Veterinary Institute, 1924) and the Veterinary Faculty of Ankara University (1934). The first modern slaughterhouse was established in Karaağaç (Kocaeli) on 12 July 1923. The Ministry of Health issued the “Municipality Law,” which allowed municipalities with populations over 10,000 to conduct food control under the Ministry’s authority (1930). The “Turkish Standards Institute” was established and granted the authority to prepare and publish standards for food products (22 November 1960). In response to potential health risks arising from recent globalization, international organizations including FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), WHO (World Health Organization), OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health), and WTO (World Trade Organization) have taken action. These organizations, through collaboration with their affiliated university, industry institutions and other bodies, transform the findings and reports produced by their scientific committees into internationally binding standards that form the foundation of food safety.
Although food additives (FAs) are used to extend shelf life and improve taste, color and texture, concerns have arisen among consumers regarding their health effects. Major reasons for these concerns include masking low-quality or spoiled food, wrong processing methods, imitation product manufacturing, reduction in nutritional value, and use of additives in quantities exceeding permitted limits.
Nitrites and nitrates used as preservatives can form nitrosamines, which may increase cancer risk when consumed in high amounts, and can reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. However, research has shown that certain antioxidants (tocopherol, ascorbic acid, lactic acid) reduce nitrosamine formation and lower residual nitrite levels in meat products. A study conducted in Türkiye found that nitrite and nitrate levels in all examined meat samples were within safe limits.
Some food additives cause adverse effects, particularly in children and sensitive individuals. For example, benzoic acid (E210) and sulfur dioxide (E220) asthma can cause skin rashes and hyperactivity. In the 1980s, sulfur dioxide was found to cause severe allergic reactions and fatalities, leading many countries to reduce its permitted usage levels. Researchers such as McCann and Shaywitz demonstrated that artificial colorants increase attention deficit and hyperactivity in children. Studies conducted in Türkiye found that permitted dye levels in cake decorations and candies were frequently exceeded, and even banned colorants were used.
The health effects of food packaging materials have also been investigated. Chemicals from packaging materials have been shown to migrate into food and pose particular risks to small children. It has also been suggested that chemicals may leach from silicone-based kitchen materials into food, potentially causing toxic effects. Plasticizers such as di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) have been shown to interfere with the hormone system and negatively affect reproductive functions.
Although international authorities (JECFA, EFSA) consider many additives safe within specified limits, dietary exposure assessments are often inadequate. Studies conducted in Türkiye have found that food safety standards during transportation, processing, and storage operations are not fully aligned with European standards. Therefore, stricter monitoring and consumer awareness campaigns are essential to ensure the safe use of additives.
The purposes of using food additives can be listed as follows:
1. Preservatives: These additives extend shelf life by preserving the quality and flavor of food. Preservatives added to food slow down spoilage caused by air, bacterium, mold, fungi, and yeasts. Antioxidants used as preservatives are substances added to prevent rancidity or flavor changes in solid and liquid fats within food.
2. Texturizers and Process Enhancers: pH regulators help adjust the acidity and alkalinity of food to achieve desired taste, flavor, and color. Anti-caking agents are substances used to maintain the flowability of powdered mixtures such as salt, milk powder, and powdered sugar.
3. Flavor and Color Enhancers: Used to enhance flavor or impart a desirable color to improve the appearance of certain foods.
4. Nutrient Preservers and Fortifiers: During processing, foods may lose certain vitamins and minerals (B1, B2, niacin). They are also added to complement dietary deficiencies (vitamins A and D).
History of Food Safety
Use of Food Additives (FAs) and Their Effects on Human Health
Purposes of Using Food Additives
Classification of Food Additives According to Their Purposes