Göktürk Alphabet

The Köktürk alphabet is an ancient Turkic script developed by the Köktürks in Central Asia during the 8th century. It consists of 38 basic characters and was written from right to left using the incision technique on stone.

Naming of the Alphabet

Because the letters of this script resemble those of the ancient Scandinavian runic writing, Western Turkologists have named this writing system “Old Turkic Runic Script.” In Turkish sources, however, it is most commonly referred to as the “Köktürk Alphabet” or the “Orkhon Alphabet.”

According to Akar, the term “Orkhon” is insufficient because it implies that the inscriptions are confined only to the Orkhon region, whereas the actual distribution of these inscriptions extends far beyond the borders of modern Mongolia. He also argues that the term “Runic” is inadequate, as similar characters appear in cultures that predated the Runes.^【1】

In scholarly literature, the term “Göktürk” is widely used for the Köktürk alphabet; however, some researchers such as Prof. Dr. Ali Akar and Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ölmez prefer the term “Köktürk.” The difference between these two usages is essentially one of pronunciation.

Köktürk Alphabet (TDV Islamic Encyclopedia)

Origin of the Alphabet

Although the Köktürk script has limited capacity for representing vowels, it is regarded as a highly rich phonetic system in terms of consonants and syllabic signs. While there are various theories regarding its origin, a significant number of researchers agree that the final form of the script was shaped under Turkic influence. The main approaches to the origin of the alphabet are as follows:

The first of these theories is the Runic theory, represented by A. O. Heikel. This view suggests that the Turks may have adopted the alphabet from the Scandinavian Runes.

The Anatolian theory, proposed by O. Donner, posits that the Köktürk letters may have derived from the alphabetic traditions of Anatolia, such as those of Lycia, Phoenicia, and the Hittites.

The Aramaic theory was first put forward by W. Thomsen. Initially, Thomsen argued that the letters originated from Aramaic or Pahlavi scripts, but later, in collaboration with Soğd expert Gauthiot, he shifted his view to support the idea that the script had Soğd origins.

Another approach is the Turk-Aramaic theory, developed by N. D. Sokolov. This theory holds that while the letters are of Aramaic origin, they were nationalized by the Turks and adapted into a script used for stone inscriptions.

The Turkic emblem theory, supported by numerous researchers including N. A. Artistov and N. G. Mallitskiy, argues that the Köktürk alphabet emerged from the gradual transformation of ancient Turkic tribal emblems into a phonetic sign system.

In addition, Russian archaeologist Savenkof suggested that the formal characteristics of the alphabet recall figures used in shamanistic rituals, proposing that these figures may have been stylized and evolved into letters. Ahmet Caferoğlu also supported this view. According to him, approximately 159 ideograms found in the Yenisei inscriptions evolved into the 38-letter phonetic alphabet of the Orkhon region.^【2】

Historical Context and Usage

Köktürk is the oldest Turkic dialect preserved in written documents. This term specifically refers to the ancient Turkic dialect spoken in the territory of modern Mongolia during the first half of the 8th century, in the period of the Second Turkic Khaganate (682–744). This variety of Turkish is very likely a continuation of the ancient Turkic spoken in the same region during the First Turkic Khaganate (550–630).

After the collapse of the Second Turkic Khaganate, the language of the inscriptions from the subsequent Uyghur Khaganate (744–840), established in the same region, is largely identical to Köktürk. Similarly, the language of the Yenisei inscriptions dated to the 9th–10th centuries and the runic texts found in Eastern Turkestan does not differ from Köktürk.

The primary writing system used to record this written heritage is the Köktürk alphabet. This alphabet, found in the oldest known Turkic inscriptions written in Köktürk, is the earliest known script of the Turks. It consists largely of letters formed by combining straight and slanted lines in various ways. Although some letters include curved lines, horizontal lines are very rare. The alphabet holds great significance as it reflects the political, social, and cultural life of the Köktürks.

Decipherment of the Köktürk Letters

The Köktürk Alphabet presents the oldest known written examples of the Turkic language and serves as a fundamental source for understanding the historical, cultural, and linguistic heritage of the Turks. It is also a key symbol in the development of the language. Recognition of its importance by the academic world became possible only after the written examples were brought to light.

In 1889, during a scientific expedition to Mongolia led by Nikolay M. Yadrintsev, the inscriptions of Kül Tigin and Bilge Kağan were discovered. The Chinese texts on the western faces of the inscriptions and their substantial size provided researchers with a crucial foundation for their decipherment efforts.

Two scholars emerged as central figures during this period: Wilhelm Radloff and Vilhelm Thomsen. Both conducted intensive studies on the direction of writing, the letter system, and the linguistic features of the script. Thomsen compared similar texts on the Kül Tigin and Bilge Kağan inscriptions and determined that the script was written from right to left. Noticing that the most frequently used signs represented vowels, he correctly deciphered several of them. He then deepened his analysis by hypothesizing that frequently recurring phrases might be personal names. By comparing Turkic names appearing in the Chinese texts with those on the inscriptions, Thomsen successfully read key terms such as “Teŋri (God),” “Türk,” and “Kül Tigin,” thereby establishing the fundamental structure of the writing system. This discovery revealed the structure of the Köktürk alphabet and definitively proved that the inscriptions belonged to the Turks.

On 15 December 1893, Thomsen announced at a scientific meeting that he had deciphered the letters of the inscriptions and presented his method. Around the same time, Radloff reached similar findings, particularly regarding vowel signs, obtaining results parallel to those of Thomsen. However, the full decipherment of the script was achieved through Thomsen’s work.

Although Radloff lagged behind Thomsen in deciphering the letters, he published the first editions. In 1894, he published the Kül Tigin Inscription and subsequently the Koşo-Çaydam inscriptions in three fascicles. Thomsen, after deciphering the script, began publishing the texts, but due to delays in the printing process, he was only able to publish his work in 1896. Thomsen’s meticulous and comprehensive publication became the foundational reference for subsequent research.

Formal Characteristics of the Script

The Köktürk script was generally written from right to left using the incision technique on stone. However, in some Yenisei inscriptions, lines are written from left to right, in which case the letters are carved in reverse orientation.

The most prominent examples of this alphabet are found in the inscriptions of Kül Tigin, Bilge Kağan, and Tonyukuk. The Kül Tigin and Bilge Kağan inscriptions feature a 38-letter phonetic alphabet. In the Tonyukuk inscription, however, two additional syllabic signs (“aş” and “baş”) appear, each used only once, bringing the total number of characters to 40. Four of the letters in the Orkhon alphabet are vowel signs, each representing two vowels: a/e, ı/i, o/ö, u/ü. Nevertheless, the consonant signs in the alphabet, combined with Turkic vowel harmony, prevent incorrect vowel readings. Approximately twenty of the remaining letters are double consonant signs, functioning similarly to syllabic signs: /ab/, /eb/; /ad/, /ed/; /ag/, /eg/; /ak/, /ek/; /al/, /el/; /an/, /en/; /ar/, /er/; /as/, /es/; /at/, /et/; /ay/, /ey/. In addition, there are two more letters representing rounded vowel syllables and two others representing front narrow vowels: /ok, uk, ko, ku/ and /ök, ük, kö, kü/; and /ık, kı/ and /iç, çi/. Some consonants have only one sign: /ç/, /m/, /ŋ/, /ñ/, /p/, /ş/, and /z/. These are signs used without vowel distinction. The alphabet also contains three composite consonant signs, known as double consonants: /lt/, /nç/, /nt/. The letter /çi/, used once in the Tonyukuk inscription, should also be added to this group.

In addition, several letters not found in the Köktürk alphabet appear in the Yenisei inscriptions and in the runic text of the Irk Bitig.

The sentence structure of texts written in the Köktürk alphabet shows no influence from foreign languages such as Sanskrit or Sogdian. The vocabulary related to religious life is almost entirely Turkic. Outside the religious domain, only a limited number of Chinese loanwords have been identified.