Turkish Cuisine

Turkish cuisine is a cultural system encompassing the foods and beverages unique to Türkiye, their preparation, cooking, and storage methods, the tools and techniques required for these processes, eating habits, and all practices and beliefs surrounding the kitchen. It has been shaped and enriched by numerous factors including historical processes, geographical conditions, interactions with other cultures, and ecological and economic structures. In various sources, it is recognized as one of the world’s leading cuisines alongside French and Chinese cuisines.

Historical Development

The historical evolution of Turkish culinary culture spans a broad time period, beginning in Central Asia and extending through the Seljuk, Ottoman, and Republican periods.

Pre-Islamic Central Asian Turkish Cuisine

The earliest Turkish cuisine, shaped by the nomadic culture of Central Asia, was primarily based on animal products. Lamb and horse meat, along with dairy products derived from these animals, were the main sources of nutrition. The Kyrgyz also consumed wild game such as rabbit and deer. Methods for preserving meat over long periods—including canning, drying (pastırma), roasting, and fermentation (sucuk)—were developed in early times. Offal was also consumed, cooked on the tandır or over open fire.

Milk and dairy products held great importance; especially kımız, a slightly alcoholic fermented drink made from mare’s milk, was among the preferred beverages of ancient Turks. Yogurt, ayran, kefir, çökelek, butter, and dried yogurt (kurut) were widely produced. It is generally accepted that tarhana, made by fermenting yogurt and grains, was also developed by the Turks.

Although grain use was limited due to the nomadic lifestyle, groups such as the Uyghurs who adopted a settled way of life used agricultural products more extensively. Barley, wheat, oats, and millet were cultivated; semolina (dövme) and bulgur were produced from wheat. Bread varieties included somun, bazlama, and yufka (yuga, yuvga, yupka). Mantı, believed to have been learned from the Chinese by the Uyghurs, was an important dish of this period. Soups included topık sünğük (tripe soup), tarhana soup, yogurt soup, and umaç (oğmaç) soup.

Besides kımız, beverages included boza made from millet, wine from grapes, Hunnish honey wine (medus) and barley drink (camum), begni made from wheat and millet, and Io, a non-alcoholic drink made by sweetening yogurt with fruit. Pork was not consumed due to its incompatibility with nomadic life or cultural and religious reasons.

Culinary tools listed by Kaşgarlı Mahmud in his work Divan-u Lügat’it Türk included cups, knives, meat hooks, ewers, trays, buckets, sieves, skewers, griddles, susak, cups, bowls, ladles, spoons, boats, and various containers made of leather.

Seljuk Cuisine

With the Seljuks’ settlement in Anatolia and their adoption of Islam, the culinary culture entered a new phase. The transition to settled life in agriculturally favorable regions increased the use of agricultural foods. Seljuk cuisine is generally described as a simple cuisine that combined the meat- and dairy-based dietary habits of nomadic life with the agricultural products of settled life. Meals were typically consumed twice daily: at noon and in the evening.

Meat, especially lamb, goat, kid, and horse meat, retained its importance; fish, poultry, and game animals were also consumed. Kebabs known as büran (büryan) and offal cooked on the tandır were common. Bread preserved its Central Asian varieties (somun, bazlama, yufka) and began to be served alongside every meal. Bread types such as arı girde (a thin flatbread made exclusively from wheat flour, believed to have been prepared for sultans) and çukmin (a cookie-like bread steamed with water vapor) also appeared during this period.

Semolina (dövme) and bulgur made from wheat were used in dishes such as toyga aşı, yogurt soup, keşkek (helise), and aşure. Wheat soup was also widely consumed. Dairy production continued with yogurt, ayran, butter, kefir, kurut, and çökelek. Although consumption of kımız declined under Islamic influence, it was not entirely abandoned.

At Seljuk feasts, pilafs, boraniler, yahniler, kebabs, heliseler (keşkek), sherbets, soups, tutmaç, tirit, bulamaç, bread, vegetable dishes, and sweets such as helva and kadayıf were served. Legumes such as chickpeas and beans, along with various spices, are thought to have entered Seljuk cuisine through interaction with Arab culture. Fruits (apples, plums, grapes, quinces) were consumed fresh or dried (kak) and used to make hoşaf with pekmez; vinegar and wine were also produced from grapes. Pekmez and honey were the primary sweeteners. Zerde, a rice dessert, has survived from the Seljuk period to the present day.

In the Seljuk palace, kitchens were supervised by chief cooks, and wine cellars by chief wine stewards. In homes, the area designated for cooking was called aşlık; this term was gradually replaced by the Arabic-derived matbah (kitchen).

Ottoman Cuisine

During the Ottoman Empire, Turkish cuisine experienced its most brilliant and rich period. The empire’s vast geography, multicultural structure, traditional Turkish culinary heritage, Islamic influence, interaction with Arab and Persian cuisines, contributions from Greek, Georgian, Armenian, and Jewish minorities, and Anatolia’s rich array of produce formed the foundation of this richness.

Ottoman cuisine can generally be divided into palace cuisine and folk cuisine.

• Palace Cuisine (Matbah-ı Amire): Established in Topkapı Palace during the reign of Fatih Sultan Mehmet, the Matbah-ı Amire was a massive organization preparing meals for thousands. The sultan’s meals were prepared in a separate section called kuşhane. In the helvahane section, jams, hoşaf, sherbets, pickles, sweets, and medicinal macuns (the most famous being Nevruziye/mesir macunu) were produced. It was believed that there was a close relationship between nutrition and health in the palace. Dining etiquette and meal customs were regulated by law; from Fatih’s reign onward, sultans began eating their meals alone or with their harems. Cooks were specialized into roles such as kebab chef, pilaf chef, börek chef, diet chef, hoşaf chef, and confectioner. A fish kitchen was added to the palace during the reign of Mahmud II.
• Folk Cuisine: Although less ornate than palace cuisine, folk cuisine offered a rich and varied menu. The commoner’s table typically consisted of sesame bread, lamb meat or pastırma, rice soup or pilaf, and various vegetables and fruits. Meals were eaten on the floor, on a tablecloth, usually by hand (except for soups, hoşaf, and sometimes pilaf, which were eaten with spoons).

Basic Foods and Dishes

• Meat: Lamb and kid meat were preferred; beef was generally used for making pastırma. Veal began to be used in Western-style dishes from the second half of the 19th century. Chicken meat was widely consumed; turkey entered the cuisine after the 18th century. Dishes from minority cultures, such as papaz yahnisi, were adapted by substituting vinegar for wine. Meat dishes were typically prepared using kebab, yahni, külbastı, and frying techniques.
• Seafood: Although not highly favored in early periods, fish was widely consumed in Istanbul due to its abundance and low cost, especially during times of scarcity. It is known that Fatih Sultan Mehmet enjoyed fish. Fish consumption increased from the 19th century onward under Western influence; lakerda, caviar, fish roe, and çiroz became common in the palace.
• Vegetables: Okra entered palace cuisine from the 17th century. In the 19th century, American-origin vegetables such as tomato, bean, potato, and fresh pepper became widespread. The history of tomato in Turkish cuisine is relatively recent; initially consumed green, it later became used ripe and red in dishes and as sauce. Vegetable dishes such as pilaki, silkme, and musakka also became established during this period.
• Grains and Bread: Bread was mostly made from wheat flour; barley flour was used during times of scarcity. White bread was the most preferred type. Varieties such as nan-ı aziz, has ekmek, fodula, francala, yufka bread, and somun were also consumed. Rice became widespread from the second half of the 16th century and became an important dish in both palace and folk cuisine. Numerous pilaf varieties were made with bulgur, rice, and kuskus.
• Fats: Clarified butter (sadeyağ) was the primary cooking fat. Olive oil consumption was lower and sometimes used for lamp fuel. Sesame oil was generally preferred for sweet preparations.
• Dairy Products: Butter, milk, yogurt, and ayran were supplied from palace-affiliated dairies. Milk was used in sweets such as sütlaç, muhallebi, and tavukgöğsü; kaymak was used in baklava and ekmek kadayıfı. Various cheeses (lor, dil, çayır, Mudurnu, Karaman, kaşkaval, tulum, etc.) arrived in Istanbul from all corners of the empire.
• Desserts and Sherbets: Desserts were as important in Ottoman cuisine as meat and pilaf. They entered the cuisine following the adoption of Islam and interaction with Arab culture. Helva was a shared dessert of both palace and people; the most famous palace variety was zülbaye helva. Other desserts included güllaç, kadayıf, baklava (which gained popularity after the 18th century), lokma, lalanga, aşure, muhallebi, tavukgöğsü, and kazandibi. Since sugar cane was scarce, pekmez, dried grapes, or honey were used for sweetening. Sherbets were made from various fruits, honey, pekmez, or fragrant flowers such as rose and water lily.
• Soups: Soup held an important place in Turkish cuisine and was considered a dish in its own right, beyond merely being an appetizer as in Western cuisines. It was typically made with chicken or meat broth and rice. Tarhana, bulgur, chickpea, lentil, tripe, and head-and-feet soups were also common. Soups were often soured with koruk juice, lemon, vinegar, or plum juice before consumption.
• Spices: Black pepper (fülfül) was the most commonly used spice despite its high cost. Cumin, saffron, mustard, coriander, and cinnamon were also frequently used. Expensive aromatic substances such as amber and musk were used in special dishes, desserts, and macuns. American-origin spices such as chili pepper, vanilla, and allspice began to be used from the 19th century onward.

In the 19th century, increased contact with Europe led to diversification of the traditional culinary culture, with both alafranga (Western-style) and alaturka (traditional) practices coexisting. Dining etiquette also changed; from the reign of Mahmud II onward, the use of chairs at the table and the fork and knife became customary. French cuisine exerted increasing influence during this period.

Republican Period and Modern Turkish Cuisine

Modern Turkish cuisine inherited the legacy of Ottoman culinary culture but also underwent significant changes. At the beginning of the 20th century, a structure emerged incorporating both traditional (alaturka) and modern (alafranga) culinary practices. Influenced by the West, the number of daily meals increased from two to three (breakfast, lunch, dinner). The use of animal fats (internal fat, tail fat) declined due to health concerns and was replaced by sunflower oil, margarine, and olive oil.

The formation of modern Turkish cuisine reflects the Turks’ Central Asian past, the adoption of Islam and interaction with Arab culture, and the influence of civilizations that ruled Anatolia, such as Greek, Hittite, and Persian. Modern Turkish cuisine, characterized by synthesis, includes elements suitable for healthy and balanced nutrition; it features distinctive food items such as pekmez, bulgur, yogurt, and tarhana.

Although traditional foods and beverages have sometimes lost ground due to changing dietary habits in contemporary times, interest in regional and traditional foods has begun to rise again. However, some dishes and culinary practices have been gradually forgotten. It is believed that reviving this lost culinary culture will contribute to transmitting the Turkish culinary tradition to future generations and better reflect the richness of the cuisine.

General Characteristics

The general characteristics of Turkish cuisine can be summarized as follows:

• Bread is the main food and is considered sacred.
• Kebabs, meat dishes in stew form, and pastries are common.
• Vegetables are typically cooked with meat, onions, and tomato paste.
• Olive oil is widely used, especially in Western Anatolia.
• Bulgur, a grain native to Anatolia, is frequently used in soups, vegetable dishes, and meatballs.
• Dishes are sometimes sweetened with fruit or dried fruit.
• Spice use is common; red pepper and salt are the most frequently used.
• Yogurt is an essential part of the table and is consumed with many dishes or poured over them.
• Pekmez is used alongside sugar in desserts.
• Decoration of dishes and plates is not common, although plate decoration art has begun to develop in recent times.
• Traditionally, there is no separate sauce service or heavy use of sauces in dishes; tomato paste and the natural juices of ingredients are preferred.

Factors Influencing Turkish Cuisine

Many factors have influenced the richness and diversity of Turkish culinary culture:

• Geographical Location and Agricultural Structure: The variety of products offered by the lands of Asia and Anatolia is significant. The Turks’ transition from nomadic culture to settled agricultural society increased the use of grains and plants alongside animal products.
• Cultural Interactions: Interactions throughout history with various civilizations such as Chinese, Arab, Persian, Greek, and Hittite, as well as with different ethnic and religious groups within the empire (Greek, Armenian, Jewish, etc.), have been important for Turkish cuisine.
• Religious Beliefs: The adoption of Islam shaped the cuisine through prohibitions of certain foods such as pork and through halal slaughter practices. Religious influences are also evident in dining etiquette, such as beginning meals with the basmala and expressing gratitude.
• Seljuk and Ottoman Palaces: New flavors were developed in palace kitchens, and culinary culture was refined.
• Traditions and Customs: Hospitality, communal eating habits, and dishes prepared for special occasions (birth, wedding, death, holidays) are important aspects of Turkish cuisine.

Traditional Foods and Forgotten Values

Many fundamental foods from the Central Asian period have survived into modern Turkish cuisine: sucuk, pastırma, yogurt, tarhana, mantı, erişte, keşkek, and boza. However, some beverages and foods such as kımız, horse meat, mare’s milk, tarasun, medus, camum, begni, and Io are either completely forgotten or known only in very limited circles. Similarly, special products from the Seljuk period such as arı girde and çukmin bread have not found a place in modern cuisine. From Ottoman cuisine, certain regional cheeses such as çayır and Mudurnu cheese, meat-stuffed apples, egg-stuffed dishes, peacock meat, pelver (pekmez marmalade), various macuns, zülbaye helva, and aromatic products such as amber and musk have largely been forgotten or survive only symbolically.

Its Place in the World and Promotion

Although Turkish cuisine is often listed by many food authorities as one of the world’s top three cuisines, it is noted that it has not received its due recognition internationally. One reason is that, despite its rich diversity, promotion has generally focused on only a limited number of dishes. Online research has found that Turkish cuisine’s position in lists of “the world’s best cuisines” varies and it does not always appear in the top rankings. On these websites, Turkish cuisine is typically highlighted through its Ottoman heritage, fusion characteristics, rich breakfast, historical background, and variety of meat, vegetables, and sweets (döner, kebap, baklava).

It is believed that reviving the forgotten culinary culture and promoting Turkish cuisine in its entirety will contribute to preserving cultural heritage and support Turkish tourism.