Western Anatolia's Afro Zeybekleri

Afro Zeybekler were African-origin outlaws and warriors active in western Anatolia during the 19th and early 20th centuries under the Ottoman Empire. Their origins trace back to various regions of North and East Africa including Sudan, Abyssinia Benghazi Egypt and Arabia. These individuals were brought to the region through the slave trade or arrived via pilgrims traveling to Mecca. Over time some Africans who were freed or escaped slavery became influential in the region by engaging in agriculture shepherding and guard duties as well as joining Zeybek bands.

Afro Zeybekers participating in the 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War (Ali Özçelik)

Origins and Settlement

Since the 16th century Africans brought to Ottoman ports such as Istanbul and Izmir via the navy and pirates were later dispersed to agricultural regions of western Anatolia. Centers such as Torbalı Tire Ödemiş Bayındır Selçuk Salihli Aydın and Dalaman became hubs of Afro communities. Often referred to as “Arabs” by the local population Afro-origin individuals participated in daily labor and military roles.

Afro Elements in Zeybek Culture

Zeybekism was a warrior tradition emerging in the mountainous regions of western Anatolia exhibiting characteristics of both mercenary service and banditry. Afro Zeybekers stood out within Zeybek culture as both formidable combatants and intimidating pioneers. Efe leaders frequently employed Afro Zeybekers for personal protection message delivery and to instill fear in enemies during the initial phase of raids. Their imposing physiques and flamboyant attire created a powerful impression on local communities.

Afro Zeybekers (Ali Özçelik)

Notable Figures and Events

Parmaksız Arap

Born in the early 1800s in a poor Afro family near İzmir-Ödemiş he grew up under harsh conditions working as a servant and laborer. After stealing a rifle he fled to the mountains and joined the band of the renowned efe Gereli Efe. Due to his strength marksmanship and ruthless nature he quickly rose to become the second-in-command of the gang. In the widespread extortion and raiding operations conducted by Gereli’s band across regions including Bayındır Tire Ödemiş Nazilli Sultanhisar Atça and Köşk he effectively coordinated auxiliary groups to launch coordinated two-pronged attacks earning widespread fame. His reputation was so great that his name was even mentioned in a folk song dedicated to Gereli Efe:

“If you ask what he drinks every evening it is wine

If you ask who his friend is it is Parmaksız Arap...”^【1】

His successful raid on Balyozoğlu—a mission deemed impossible due to heavy police presence in İzmir—further enhanced his notoriety. He lost the index finger of his right hand during the Kuyucak raid which earned him the epithet “Parmaksız” (Fingerless). Physically large black-skinned like an Abyssinian crow with large red eyes and a fearsome appearance he exerted a strong psychological impact on his enemies. However after being tracked down by the Karaosmanoğlu family Gereli’s band was dismantled Gereli Efe was executed and Parmaksız Arap was exiled to Tripolitania as punishment and died in damp prison cells.

Çifte Araplar

These two Afro Zeybekers were inseparable companions of Çakırcalı Ahmet one of Ödemiş’s most famous outlaw leaders. They served as his personal attendants and were deployed at the forefront of raids to intimidate opponents. When the gang planned a raid one of the two Afro Zeybekers would enter first displaying his red tongue and wide-open white eyes to instill terror. They were also responsible for delivering threatening letters or messages to wealthy families. Renowned for their physical intimidation and absolute loyalty to their efe they became legendary figures.

Koca Arap

Born in the late 1850s he gained fame as the chief Zeybek of Yörük Osman Efe. His powerful build stern temperament and experienced combat skills made him the backbone of the gang. In 1880 he formed his own auxiliary band and operated alongside his efe in the Bozdağlar region.

He is most famously remembered for the 1881 Güllük Raid. In this operation Çakırcalı Ahmet Yörük Osman Çallı Veli Bakırlı Mehmet Piç Osman Deli Mehmet Kürt Mustafa and Harputlu Ömer formed a united band of 40–45 fighters including seven Afro Zeybekers among them Koca Arap and the Çifte Araplar. Around 40 people were captured at Güllük Pier without distinction of religion or ethnicity and taken to Kazıklı Forest where they were released after substantial ransom payments. The incident caused a major diplomatic uproar particularly due to the capture of Greek captives who prompted consulates to lodge formal complaints with the Sublime Porte.

After being pardoned Koca Arap soon resumed extortion activities alongside Yörük Osman targeting the Greek elite of Söke. In response the Governor of Aydın Hacı Naşit Paşa planned a coordinated operation to eliminate the region’s notorious Zeybek leaders. On 15 October 1883 Yörük Osman and Koca Arap were invited to the İzmir Provincial Office where they were disarmed before being admitted. After a meeting and meal as they prepared to leave dozens of rifles were trained on them from windows rooftops and gardens. In the ensuing clash Yörük Osman was shot and killed while Koca Arap attempting to draw his yataghan was knocked to the ground by the Prison Director Pehlivan Hüseyin Ağa who then beheaded him with the weapon. This execution formed part of the “Zeybek Massacre” in which many efe and their men were killed on the same day.

Roles in Wars

Afro Zeybekers also participated in Ottoman military campaigns. They served in Zeybek battalions and irregular units during the Crimean War of 1854 the Montenegrin War and especially the 1877–78 Russo-Turkish War (93 Harbi). They excelled in reconnaissance ambush and close combat roles. Western artists and travelers frequently depicted them in their works as “Afro Başıbozuk” figures.

Raids and Pursuits

The Güllük Raid of 1881 was one of the largest operations involving Afro Zeybekers. The capture of nearly 40 people without regard to religion or ethnicity triggered a diplomatic crisis and led to extensive pursuit operations. Although some Afro Zeybekers were pardoned and appointed as official kır serdars most returned to the mountains.

Cultural Impact

Afro Zeybekers left deep imprints on the folklore of western Anatolia. Their names appear in folk songs and their stories were preserved through oral tradition. Their flamboyant attire bold demeanor and striking physical features made a lasting impression on both local communities and European observers.

Republican Era and Beyond

Changes in political and social conditions from the early 20th century onward brought an end to the armed activities of Afro Zeybekers. Some returned to village life while others preserved their cultural identity within local communities. Thus Afro Zeybekers transformed from warrior figures into folkloric symbols.