Yavuz Sultan Selim Şam Vakfiyesi

The Yavuz Sultan Selim Foundation in Damascus, established on 927 Safar (1518), is a külliye comprising a mosque, tomb, and soup kitchen built in honor of the great Sufi mystic Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi in the Salhiyya quarter of Damascus. It represents the first institutional manifestation of the Ottoman waqf system in Syria and a significant indicator of the integration of Ottoman administrative and social structures into the region. This waqf institution became a crucial symbol of Ottoman authority in the area. The foundation documents detailing the establishment and operation of this külliye, one of the earliest and most important examples of the Ottoman waqf system in the Middle East, provide valuable insights into the socio-economic structure of the period and Ottoman administrative arrangements.

Historical Background and Establishment of the Waqf

During the reign of Yavuz Sultan Selim (1512–1520), the eastern borders of the Ottoman State had extended to the Euphrates River, yet Mamluk rule persisted in Southeastern Anatolia. Disputes over control of the Hijaz trade routes, competition for influence over the Dulkadirids, and rivalry in Cilicia inevitably led to conflict between the Ottoman and Mamluk states. The Mamluk Sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri’s pro-Shah Ismail policy during the Ottoman-Safavid struggle further heightened tensions. Additionally, widespread discontent among the Mamluk population due to heavy taxation and the secret overtures made by regional governors such as Hayır Bey of Aleppo and Canberdi Ghazali to the Ottomans were key factors prompting Yavuz Sultan Selim’s campaign into Syria and Egypt.

The Egyptian campaign began on 5 June 1516 with the departure of the Ottoman army from Istanbul. The army advanced rapidly and reached Malatya on 28 July 1516. Subsequently, after passing through Antep and Aleppo, the Ottoman forces defeated the Mamluk army at Marj Dabiq on 24 August 1516, resulting in the death of Qansuh al-Ghawri. Following this victory, the Ottoman army moved toward Damascus via Hama and Homs; the city surrendered without resistance. The Sultan established his tent at a place called Mastaba outside Damascus and remained there for twelve days before entering the city on 9 October 1516. The Ottoman army and Yavuz Sultan Selim resided in Damascus for approximately eighty days, from 28 September to 16 December. During this time, preparations for the Egyptian campaign and administrative reorganizations were carried out. The Ottoman victory at the Battle of Ridaniya on 22 January 1517 led to the collapse of the Mamluk State and the incorporation of Egypt into Ottoman rule.

After spending about eight and a half months in Egypt, Yavuz Sultan Selim departed from Cairo on 13 September and returned to Damascus. The Sultan arrived near the city on 21 Ramadan 923 (17 October 1517) and stayed in a tent outside Damascus. After performing the Ramadan Eid prayer at the Umayyad Mosque, he remained in his tent for five more days and entered Damascus on 22 October, taking up residence in a palace. During this second stay in Damascus, the Sultan ordered a comprehensive tahrir (land and population survey) and initiated military and administrative reforms in the region.

One of the most significant initiatives undertaken by Yavuz Sultan Selim during this period was the construction of a külliye on the site of the grave of the renowned Sufi mystic Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi in the Salhiyya district of Damascus. Ottoman sources, particularly Celâl-zâde Mustafa’s Selim-nâme, reference this event. According to the Selim-nâme, after the conquest of Damascus, the Sultan ordered the construction of a tomb over the luminous grave of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi and a soup kitchen nearby to provide meals for the poor and destitute.

According to Ibn Tulun, upon his return from Egypt, Yavuz Sultan Selim, while residing in the palace of Malik al-Zahir in the Green Square of Damascus, resolved to spend the winter in the city and to build a tomb, mosque, and associated structures in honor of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi. After entering Damascus, on 14 Ramadan 923 (1517), the Sultan summoned a group of prominent local notables. As reported by Ibn Tulun, the Hatib of the Umayyad Mosque, Ibn Farfur, and the Sultan’s tutor, Shahabeddin Ibn Itar, went to the site of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi’s tomb to determine its exact location. Once the grave’s position was confirmed, measurements were taken to assess the suitability of the site for constructing a mosque, tomb, and associated buildings for the Sultan. On a Sunday, at the Sultan’s behest, a distinguished delegation consisting of Shahabeddin, the Umayyad Mosque Hatib al-Melvi, Ibn Farfur, the Qadiasker Rukneddin ibn Zeyrek, and other notables traveled to Salhiyya. There, they issued an order and decree to construct a tomb over the grave of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi, along with a mosque, soup kitchen, and facilities for the poor. For this purpose, the house of Hayri Bey, the scribe of the Cabiiye Madrasa adjacent to the site, was purchased for 6,000 dirhems. Construction began immediately, and 10,000 dinars were allocated to an official to cover building expenses. The resulting waqf complex consisted of a small külliye comprising a mosque, soup kitchen (mutfak), zawiya, tomb, and several auxiliary buildings. This construction became a lasting monument to the Ottoman presence and charitable activities in the region.

Waqf Structures and Contents

The charitable works established by Yavuz Sultan Selim in Damascus consist of a comprehensive külliye built over the grave of the great Sufi mystic Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi. This külliye included fundamental structures such as a mosque, tomb, and imaret (soup kitchen). According to Celâl-zâde Mustafa’s Selim-nâme, the Sultan ordered the construction of a tomb “above the luminous grave of Sheikh Muhyiddin Arabi, the master of the ocean of truth, the holder of lofty rank and sublime grace, the revered leader of the gnostics and the foremost of the virtuous,” along with an imaret “as a sign of divine guidance.”

The waqf complex consisted of a small külliye comprising a mosque, imaret (kitchen), zawiya, tomb, and several auxiliary buildings. The fourth main section of the foundation deed details the components of the imaret and associated facilities, including the mosque, tomb, zawiya, bakery, and soup kitchen. The primary purpose of these structures was to distribute food to the poor and destitute and to provide general charitable services. Thus, Yavuz Sultan Selim established not merely a commemorative monument but also a functional social institution serving the people of the region through this külliye.

Financial Structure and Revenue Sources

The sustainability of the Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Külliye waqf established by Yavuz Sultan Selim in Damascus was ensured through generous revenue sources allocated to it. The fourth main section of the foundation deed provides a detailed list of villages, shops, and other properties assigned to generate income for the waqf.

Examining the financial structure of the waqf, we find that the properties assigned to generate revenue include the village of Debbiye under Beirut, the village of Ayn-i Hayn under Sur, the village of Ayn-i Gazal under Acre, and the village of Cariye under Nablus. Revenues from these villages played a central role in covering the waqf’s expenditures.

In the foundation deed examined by Ibrahim Ceylan, the total annual income from the assigned villages and other properties is recorded as 270,000 dirhems. Additionally, the waqf received income from 38 shops in a market in Damascus and a silk manufacturing workshop. These shops generated one dirham per day each, and the silk workshop produced twenty dirhems per day, amounting to a total daily income of 58 dirhems, or an annual supplementary income of 21,170 dirhems. Thus, the waqf’s total annual income reached a substantial sum when combined with revenues from the villages and the Damascus shops.

The waqf’s revenues financed the operational costs of the mosque, tomb, and imaret (soup kitchen), staff salaries, and the provision of food and other aid to beneficiaries. The procurement of essential supplies such as flour, meat, olive oil, chickpeas, rice, and other provisions for the daily production and distribution of meals at the imaret constituted one of the most significant expenditure items. Furthermore, special offerings on festive occasions—such as butter, honey, rice halva, and sweets—were also funded by the waqf’s income.

Administration and Staff Structure

The Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Waqf established by Yavuz Sultan Selim in Damascus was organized with a defined administrative and staffing structure to ensure its regular operation. The fifth main section of the foundation deed details the waqf’s governance and oversight bodies, as well as the roles and responsibilities of its employed personnel. According to the foundation deed, governance and oversight of the waqf were entrusted to honorable and trustworthy individuals. Given the importance of ensuring that revenues were properly collected and that food and services reached the intended beneficiaries, experienced and honest administrators were essential. This is evident from the emphasis placed in the foundation deed on appointing individuals who were “faithful, pious, skilled, and competent in managing the waqf’s affairs.”

The staff structure of the waqf was diverse and covered the operations of all units within the külliye. These personnel included those responsible for the services of the mosque, tomb, and imaret (soup kitchen):

Imam and Hatib: Officials who led prayers and delivered sermons to the congregation. They played a central role in fulfilling the religious obligations of the waqf.

Muezzin: The official who announced prayer times and recited the adhan. He played a vital role in maintaining the congregation’s worship schedule.

Mütevelli: The highest administrator of the waqf, responsible for managing its assets, collecting revenues, and overseeing expenditures. The foundation deed particularly emphasizes that the mütevelli must be honest and qualified.

Katip: The official who maintained all records, managed income and expenditure ledgers, and handled official correspondence. He played a critical role in ensuring the financial transparency and order of the waqf.

Hafızlar: Personnel who recited the Qur’an in the mosque and tomb, particularly offering prayers in honor of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi’s soul. They contributed to preserving the spiritual atmosphere of the waqf.

Cooks: Staff responsible for preparing and distributing meals at the imaret. They formed the backbone of the daily food service provided to the poor, travelers, and beneficiaries.

Bakers: Officials who worked in the bakery to supply bread for the imaret. Their role was essential to sustaining the food service.

Kayyım: The official responsible for the cleanliness, maintenance, and upkeep of the mosque and tomb. He ensured that the places of worship remained continuously clean and well-maintained.

Staff salaries are also specified in the foundation documents. For instance, the daily wages of personnel working at the imaret were fixed in dirhems. According to the foundation deed examined by Ibrahim Ceylan, a total of 149 dirhems per day were allocated to waqf employees. This demonstrates that personnel expenses constituted a major item in the waqf’s annual budget. Staff expenditures played a crucial role in the sustainability of the waqf and ensured its uninterrupted service. This structured administration and extensive staff enabled the Yavuz Sultan Selim Waqf to function effectively for many years as both a religious and social center in Damascus. The foundation records reflect how the Ottoman State established institutional order in newly conquered territories through waqfs and the high degree of importance it placed on their operational efficiency.

Operation and Daily Services of the Imaret

A key component of the külliye built by Yavuz Sultan Selim in Damascus was the imaret (soup kitchen), which, in accordance with the rules set forth in the foundation deed, provided daily meals and provisions primarily to the needy and travelers. The seventh main section of the foundation deed meticulously records the daily operations of the imaret, detailing the types of food prepared and the quantities distributed to specific recipients. This section constitutes one of the most concrete examples of the waqf’s social welfare mission.

The primary function of the imaret was to prepare and distribute fixed quantities of food daily. According to the foundation records, each day four batman (approximately 10,256 grams) of flour were used to bake bread, six rıtl (approximately 768 dirhems) of meat and seven rıtl (approximately 896 dirhems) of chickpeas were used to prepare soup. These staple foods were distributed equally to those visiting the Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Tomb, the poor residing in the zawiya, and travelers. Meals were served in two daily portions: morning and evening. This regular food distribution played a vital role in sustaining the livelihoods of travelers arriving in Damascus and the local needy population.

The foundation deed also specified special offerings on particular occasions. On Kandil nights and other blessed days, the services of the imaret were enhanced. On these occasions, in addition to the daily meals, special foods such as butter, honey, rice halva, and sweets were prepared and distributed. These practices demonstrate that the waqf did not merely meet basic nutritional needs but also contributed significantly to religious and social life. In particular, these additional offerings on Kandil nights reflect the reverence for Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi’s spiritual legacy and the Ottoman State’s commitment to religious values.

Furthermore, the foundation deed details the procurement of materials required by the imaret. For example, one kantar (a camel-load) of firewood was transported to the imaret once or twice a week to provide fuel for cooking. These details reveal that the logistical and supply chain of the imaret was carefully planned, and all necessary elements were considered to ensure uninterrupted service. The detailed operation of the imaret clearly reflects Yavuz Sultan Selim’s intention to establish a sustainable social assistance mechanism in the region through this waqf.

First Ottoman Tahrir and Waqf Surveys in Syria

To establish order and stability in newly conquered territories, the Ottoman State conducted comprehensive tahrir (land and population surveys). Yavuz Sultan Selim’s second stay in Damascus (October 1517–May 1518), following his Egyptian campaign, marked a crucial period during which the first Ottoman tahrir and waqf surveys in Syria were carried out. During this time, the Sultan ordered the conduct of tahrir alongside military and administrative reforms, laying the foundation for the new regime.

The tahrir conducted by the Ottoman State in conquered regions was critical for determining land ownership, revenue sources, and population figures, thereby enabling the organization of the tax system and waqf institutions. In a strategically important region like Syria, these initial surveys were essential for understanding the economic and social structure and integrating it into the Ottoman administrative system. The information gathered through tahrir was used to determine the legal status of waqfs and register them officially.

Foundation deeds demonstrate that the Ottoman State formally recognized and protected waqfs. Yavuz Sultan Selim’s foundation deed for Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi was part of this registration process. The contents of the deed include not only details of the waqf’s boundaries, revenue sources, and administrative structure but also indications that the waqf’s properties and revenues were recorded in the tahrir registers. These records ensured the legal validity of waqf ownership and income while aiming to prevent misuse and ensure that waqf revenues were used strictly for their designated purposes.

The Ottoman conquest of Syria and subsequent tahrir efforts also brought to light the issue of restoring certain properties and waqfs to their original owners. Some waqfs or private properties from the Mamluk period were examined during the tahrir and either returned to their rightful owners or had their legal status clarified. This demonstrates that the Ottoman administration did not entirely disregard the existing legal structures and property rights in conquered territories but addressed them within a defined legal framework. For instance, according to Ibn Tulun’s accounts, during his stay in Damascus, Yavuz Sultan Selim presided over various legal cases, and judges returned numerous properties from the late Mamluk period to their original owners.