1775 American Revolution

The American Revolution, also known as the War of Independence, refers to a series of political, military and social transformations initiated in the late 18th century against the British Empire and culminating in the declaration of independence of the United States of America. The revolution reached its peak with armed conflicts that began in 1775 and ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Word The revolution was not merely a struggle for independence but also part of an intellectual transformation that significantly influenced the development of democracies. From the 17th century onward, British colonies established along the east coast had grown in number and organized themselves into thirteen major colonies. While these colonies developed in agriculture and maritime like sectors, they remained under British economic control. However, the colonists required British military support against threats from European opponent powers, particularly the French, and domestic Native American tribes.

Following the wars between 1775 and 1783, Britain imposed various taxes on the colonies to cover war costs. Measures such as the Stamp Act (1765), the Townshend Acts (1767), and the Tea Act (1773) intensified colonial resentment. The slogan “No taxation without representation” became the most prominent political slogan of the era. The Boston Tea Party of 1773, in particular, prompted Britain to enact harsh measures. These events pushed the colonies into a more systematic resistance movement. The Revolution process effectively began with the battles of Lexington and Concord in 1775, recognized as the first armed clashes between American militiamen and British troops. Subsequently, the Declaration of Independence was drafted under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson and proclaimed on 4 July 1776. The colonies now began to view themselves as separate, independent independent state.

Military conflicts continued primarily between the Continental Army, led initially by George Washington, and the British Army. The Battle of Saratoga (1777) was a major victory for the Americans, and following this triumph, France and later Spain and Netherlands entered the war in support of the revolution. During this period, as Britain faced international pressure, the conflict increasingly assumed an inter-imperial dimension. In 1781, British General Cornwallis surrendered at the Siege of Yorktown. This victory marked the definitive dunum point of the American triumph. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, formally recognized the independence of the United States of America by Britain.

The American Revolution had a profound impact on independence movements that began in Spanish and Portugal colonies. From the 1810s onward, uprisings in Latin America, led by local elites, evolved into full-scale revolutions that incorporated mass participation. During this process, the resistance of indigenous peoples across the American continent was largely suppressed, with hundreds of thousands displaced westward and culturally marginalized.

Causes of the Revolution

Colonial Governance and Taxation Without Representation

Although Britain emerged victorious from the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), it incurred a massive debt burden. To pay off this debt, it began imposing various taxes on the thirteen American colonies. The most contentious issue was the complete lack of colonial representation in decisions regarding this taxation. The principle of “no taxation without representation” gained widespread acceptance among the colonies. That is, the populace refused to be subjected to economic burdens imposed by a parliament in which they had no representation.

Regulations such as the Sugar Act (Sugar Act, 1764) and the Stamp Act (1765) provoked strong opposition, particularly among merchants and urban elites. The Stamp Act required that all official documents, newspapers, and even playing cards bear a special stamp. This law, as a direct and widespread tax, affected a broad segment of society. Although protests led to the repeal of the law within a short period, the British government’s attempts to assert authority over the colonies generated deep mistrust.

Mercantilist Economic Policies

Britain’s mercantilist system policy permitted colonies to export only to Britain and to import exclusively British goods. These practices stifled local production and commercial enterprise while enriching British merchants and deepening economic dependency in the colonies. As a result, the colonies were unable to develop their own economies.

In this context, the Navigation Acts eliminated the colonies’ freedom of foreign trade. American merchants suffered significant losses because they were forced to conduct indirect trade via Britain. Movements advocating reduced dependence on British goods and increased support for local production gained momentum.

Intellectual Background: Enlightenment Thought and Republicanism

The intellectual foundation of the American Revolution was Enlightenment thought. Ideas such as John Locke’s “natural rights,” “social society,” and “government legitimacy deriving from the people” as well as Montesquieu’s principle of separation of powers spread rapidly in the colonies. Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense (1776) had a major impact on public opinion. Paine argued for severing ties with Britain, criticized monarchy, and praised republican governance.

These ideas found broad resonance among colonial intellectuals and political leaders. The notion that the future American government must be based on popular sovereignty matured during this period.

British Military and Administrative Pressure

In response to unrest in the colonies, the British administration began implementing military measures. Particularly after events in Boston, such as the Boston Massacre of 1770 and the Boston Tea Party of 1773, a series of punishment laws known as the Coercive Acts or Intolerable Acts were enacted. These laws specifically targeted Massachusetts, closing the Port of Boston, expanding the governor’s powers, and dissolving assemblies elected by the people.

Additionally, the Quartering Act required British soldiers to be housed in private homes. Such practices were viewed not only as economic violations but also as infringements on personal liberties, provoking widespread outrage.

Political Awareness and Sense of Unity: The Continental Congresses

In response to British pressure, the colonies began to common movement. The First Continental Congress, convened in 1774, was the first comprehensive political union experience among the colonies. At this congress, protest letters were sent to Britain, a boycott was adopted, and a communication network among the colonies was established.

The Second Continental Congress, convened in 1775, formally acknowledged the beginning of the war. The appointment of George Washington as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army was a pivotal important step toward independence.

Discontent in Social and Economic Strata

It was not only the wealthy colonial class that suffered under British policies; small farmers, artisans, and harbor workers also felt the impact. Britain imposed restrictions on the expansion of native lands, prohibiting settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains through the Royal Proclamation of 1763. This situation created discontent among colonists seeking to expand westward.

Moreover, British goods became an economic threat to local producers. In this context, the independence movement began to transform into a popular movement supported not only by elites but also by the middle and lower classes.

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The Revolutionary Process

Prelude: Escalation to Armed Conflict (1774–April 1775)

Following Britain’s imposition of the “Intolerable Acts” to punish Massachusetts, intercolonial solidarity strengthened and the First Continental Congress convened in 1774. At this congress:

-A boycott of British goods was decided,

-A call for resistance against Right violations was issued, encouraging the colonies to prepare their own militia forces.

As tensions rose against Britain in the colonies, the British army moved to suppress resistance in Massachusetts.

Battles of Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775)

The clashes at Lexington and Concord, recognized as the actual beginning of the revolution, started when British troops sought to destroy arms depots in Massachusetts. Event unfolded as follows:

-British units marched toward Concord,

-Colonial militiamen (Minutemen) encountered the British at Lexington,

-This engagement, in which it remains unclear who fired first, went down in history as “the shot heard round the world.”

The British also faced resistance in Concord and suffered heavy losses during their retreat. This event demonstrated that the revolution had transformed from an ideological movement into a military one.

The Second Continental Congress and the Appointment of George Washington (May 1775)

Immediately after the events at Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia. At this congress:

-The Continental Army was established as a unified defense force for the colonies,

-George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of this army,

-Efforts to reach a compromise with Britain continued: the Congress proposed peace through the Olive Olive Branch Petition. However, King King George III rejected this appeal.

At this point, resistance had begun on both diplomatic and military fronts.

The Battle of Bunker Hill (June 1775)

The engagement at Bunker Hill near Boston was significant as the first major battle. Although the British eventually captured the heights:

-They suffered heavy casualties,

-The colonists demonstrated organized and disciplined resistance.

This battle boosted colonial morale and made clear that Britain would not achieve an easy victory.

The King’s Harsh Response and Radicalization (Late 1775)

King George III declared the colonies to be in rebellion and launched a large-scale military deployment to suppress it. During the same period:

-The British government began sending mercenary troops (such as the German Hessian units),

This situation fostered a broader movement for independence within the colonies.

Thomas Paine’s “Common Sense” Pamphlet (January 1776)

The most influential intellectual event of this period was Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense. The pamphlet:

-Vehemently criticized monarchy,

-Called for Complete independence,

-Defended the principles of popular sovereignty and republicanism.

More than 100,000 copies were printed within just a few moon, transforming public opinion in the colonies toward independence.

The Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776)

The Declaration of Independence, drafted by a committee including Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin, was adopted on July 4, 1776. The document:

-Asserted that all people possess natural rights to “life, freedom and the pursuit of happiness,”

-Emphasized that Britain had violated these rights,

-Declared the thirteen colonies to be “free and independent states.”

This marked the transformation of the revolution from a dispute over taxation into a war for national independence.

Expansion and Internationalization of the War (1776–1781)

After the Declaration of Independence, the war expanded further:

-In 1776, Britain invaded New York with a large army, forcing Washington to retreat.

-However, the American victory at Saratoga in 1777 became a turning point. This victory:

-Led France to form an alliance with America (1778),

-Prompted Spain (1779) and the Netherlands (1780) to join the American side,

-Turned the war into a multi-front and highly challenging current state for Britain.

Under George Washington’s leadership, American forces changed the course of the war through guerrilla tactics, local support, and foreign assistance.

The Siege and Victory at Yorktown (1781)

Britain’s final major defeat occurred during the siege of Yorktown in Virginia. During this campaign:

-Washington and French General Rochambeau surrounded British General Cornwallis,

-The French navy blockaded the Chesapeake Bay,

-Cornwallis surrendered on 19 October 1781.

This victory is widely regarded as the effective end of the war.

The Treaty of Paris and the Official End of the War (1783)

Negotiations between Britain and America began in 1782, and the Treaty of Paris was signed on 3 September 1783. The Agreement terms included:

-Britain recognized American independence,

-USA’s borders were extended to the Mississippi River,

-British troops were required to evacuate the country and commercial relations were regulated.

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Consequences of the Revolution

The Founding of the United States of America

The most fundamental and direct outcome was the independence of the thirteen British colonies and the establishment of a new state. With the 1783 Treaty of Paris:

-Britain formally recognized the independence of the United States of America,

-The territory of the United States expanded from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River,

-With independence, the former colonies could now make their own laws, conduct foreign relations, and establish their own economic systems.

The American Revolution became the first example in modern history of a colonial people establishing a nation-state.

Construction of Constitutional and Political Structures

After the revolution, a radical constitutional transformation process began in the United States:

-First, the Confederation Articles of Confederation were adopted in 1781. This building created a loose confederation of states with a weak central authority but.

Due to these inadequacies, the Philadelphia Constitution was drafted in 1787 and came into effect in 1789. This constitution:

-Adopted the principle of separation of powers (legislation, execution, judiciary),

-Established a federal structure,

-Created a bicameral Congress (Senate and House of Representatives) representing the people,

-Elected George Washington as the first president by unanimous vote.

The Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution in 1791. This document guaranteed fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals (speech, religion, press, property, etc.). This marked a pivotal moment in the history of liberal constitutionalism.

Popular Sovereignty and the Principle of Popular Will

The American Revolution concretized the idea of popular sovereignty. The principle that “government derives its authority from the consent of the governed” became the cornerstone of the American political system. In this regard:

-Rule by hereditary elites was replaced by governance through elected representatives of citizens,

-Hereditary nobility and aristocracy were rejected,

-Republicanism replaced monarchy and absolutism.

These developments placed the people’s right to choose their own leaders on a constitutional footing for the first time and opened the path toward democratization.

Social Transformations

a. Social Equality and Class Structure

Although a completely classless society did not emerge after the American Revolution, aristocratic privileges were dismantled and the idea of equal citizenship became widespread. In particular:

-Hereditary titles and nobility were formally banned,

-The status distinction between wealthy plantation owners and small farmers was eliminated,

-Political participation among poor whites began to increase.

b. Women and Enslaved People

Although women supported the independence struggle, they were excluded from constitutional rights. However, this period laid the groundwork for future women’s movements, especially in the 19th century.

African enslaved people did not directly benefit from the rhetoric of freedom. However, slavery began to be abolished in northern states, while its status remained contested in the South. This situation would lay the foundation for the future American Civil War.

Economic Autonomy and Capitalist Development

The new state, freed from British mercantilist control, gained economic freedom. During this period:

-Domestic industry and trade began to develop,

-Trade routes diversified (relations were established with France, the Netherlands, and Spain),

-Speculation and westward migration accelerated (particularly east of the Mississippi),

-Tax policies were tied to the approval of local representatives.

The American Revolution opened the path for a liberal economic order and contributed to the development of a free market system.

International Impact and Inspiration for Other Revolutions

The American Revolution was not confined to the American continent; it directly influenced popular movements across Europe and world. In particular:

-It played a decisive role in the outbreak of the French Revolution (1789). The American struggle for liberty greatly influenced French intellectuals (Lafayette, Rousseau, Condorcet), who formulated concepts of liberty, equality, and fraternity within this framework values.

-Independence movements in Latin America were also inspired by the U.S. example. Figures such as Simón Bolívar adopted the American model.

-Britain was compelled to initiate reform processes in other colonies such as Canada.

Political and Military Loss for Britain

From Britain’s perspective, the consequences of the revolution were negative:

-It lost its wealthiest colonies on the American continent,

-Its global imperial image declined,

-In domestic politics (especially during the 1780s), government authority diminished and opposition gained strength,

However, Britain quickly redirected its focus toward other colonies such as India and Australia to offset its losses compensation.

Foundation of Modern Democracy and Citizenship

The American Revolution was the first practical application of modern concepts such as citizenship, constitutional rights, rule of law, and representative democracy. In this sense:

-Contractual thinkers (Locke, Montesquieu) first established the foundational doctrines of a state,

-This political model later served as an example for many countries in the 19th and 20th centuries (e.g., France, Poland, Haiti, Latin America, etc.).