Climate Policies

Climate policies are sets of legal, economic, technological, and social measures implemented with the contribution of various stakeholders—including governments, international organizations, the private sector, civil society organizations, and local authorities—to limit the causes of climate change and manage its impacts. The primary objective of these policies is to slow global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions resulting from human activities (mitigation) and to strengthen the capacity of societies, ecosystems, and economic structures to adapt to the inevitable consequences of climate change (adaptation).

At the global level, climate policies are guided by multilateral agreements such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement. These agreements encompass national commitments to reduce emissions, financial contribution mechanisms, technology transfer, and adaptation strategies. At the national level, climate policies are implemented through climate laws, energy and environmental strategies, carbon pricing instruments (such as carbon taxes and emissions trading systems), and sectoral action plans.

In addition, climate policies anticipate transformations across a wide range of sectors, from energy production to transportation, agriculture to industry. Measures such as investments in renewable energy, energy efficiency standards, sustainable land use, forest conservation, and the promotion of technological innovation are central components of these policies. Furthermore, international cooperation, climate finance, and knowledge sharing are key factors determining the effectiveness of global climate policies.

Foundations of Global Climate Change and the Need for Policy

The Earth’s atmosphere maintains the planet’s habitable temperature through a natural greenhouse effect caused by greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and water vapor. This natural mechanism prevents surface temperatures from falling to excessively low levels, enabling ecosystem functioning and life itself. However, since the Industrial Revolution began in the 18th century, intensive use of fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas—along with industrial processes, agricultural activities, and deforestation, has caused greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to rise at an unprecedented rate in historical terms.

Assessment reports published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) have demonstrated that this increase is directly attributable to human activities and is the primary driver of rising global average temperatures. Indeed, as of 2004, approximately 56% of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions originated from carbon dioxide released by fossil fuel use, while 17% were linked to deforestation. This trend has continued in subsequent years, exerting increasing pressure on the global climate system.

The impacts of climate change extend far beyond rising temperatures. Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, storms, and hurricanes; rising sea levels; ocean acidification; and the rapid melting of polar and mountain glaciers are exposing both ecological systems and human communities to serious risks. These processes have the potential to cause disruptive effects across numerous domains, from agricultural production and water resources to public health and economic stability.

Scientific research indicates that the most effective way to minimize the adverse effects of climate change is to limit global average temperature rise to no more than 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels. Achieving this target necessitates significant and rapid reductions in global greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. Consequently, designing and implementing comprehensive, multidimensional climate policies has become an urgent necessity—not only for environmental sustainability but also for economic stability, social well-being, and global security.

International Climate Regime and Agreements

Global efforts to combat climate change gained institutional grounding with the adoption of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio Summit) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The convention invited member states to act collectively to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system and established a foundational framework for scientific cooperation, information sharing, and financial support mechanisms.

The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, marked a turning point in the international climate regime. It imposed legally binding emission reduction obligations on developed countries (Annex I nations), operationalizing the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities.” Kyoto’s flexible mechanisms—the Clean Development Mechanism, Joint Implementation, and Emissions Trading—enabled countries to meet their emission targets in a more cost-effective manner. However, the United States’ refusal to ratify the protocol and the exclusion of developing countries from binding obligations limited its effectiveness.

Today, the cornerstone of the international climate regime is the Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015. The agreement aims to pursue intensive efforts to limit global temperature rise to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5 °C. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Agreement encourages all countries—both developed and developing—to contribute to emission reduction and adaptation policies. Parties determine their own emission reduction targets through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), with a requirement to review and enhance these targets every five years. The agreement also seeks to achieve “net-zero emissions” by the second half of the 21st century, balancing anthropogenic emissions with natural carbon sinks.

Complementary elements of the global framework include regional policies and regulations. For example, the European Union’s Green Deal encompasses comprehensive transformation policies across energy, transport, industry, and agriculture sectors aligned with a low-carbon economy objective. The Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) aims to reduce the risk of “carbon leakage” by imposing additional costs on imports from countries with high-carbon production.

Meanwhile, shifts in climate policies of major economies directly influence the trajectory of global climate diplomacy. For instance, the United States’ decision under the Trump administration in 2017 to withdraw from the Paris Agreement undermined international confidence; however, the Biden administration reversed this decision in 2021 by rejoining the agreement. Such developments highlight the fragility of the climate regime and the decisive role played by major actors’ policies in shaping global progress.

Climate Policy Instruments and Strategies

Countries typically employ a combination of policy instruments, often complementary, to achieve climate change mitigation and adaptation goals. These instruments can generally be classified into legal and regulatory, economic, and adaptation and supportive mechanisms.

Legal and Regulatory Instruments

The legal framework forms the foundation of climate policies. Climate laws establish national emission reduction targets, designate responsible institutions, set implementation timelines, and define monitoring mechanisms. Examples include the United Kingdom’s 2008 Climate Change Act, Germany’s 2019 Federal Climate Protection Act, and Greece’s 2022 climate law. Additionally, emission standards for industrial facilities, buildings, vehicles, and energy production plants, along with energy efficiency regulations and renewable energy mandates, are key regulatory components. These measures strengthen policy implementation by making emission reductions across sectors a legal obligation.

Economic Instruments

Economic instruments aim to incentivize greenhouse gas emission reductions by activating market mechanisms. Carbon pricing is the foremost of these instruments and is implemented through two primary methods:

• Emissions Trading System (ETS): Based on the “cap-and-trade” principle, the government sets an upper limit (cap) on total emissions for specific sectors and allocates or auctions emission allowances to companies. Companies that emit less than their allocation can sell surplus allowances, while those exceeding their limit must purchase additional allowances. The European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is one of the most comprehensive examples of this mechanism.
• Carbon Tax: A direct tax levied on carbon-intensive fossil fuels or products with high carbon content. The tax increases the cost of carbon emissions, making emission reductions economically attractive.

In addition, financial incentives such as subsidies, tax credits, feed-in tariffs (such as Turkey’s YEKDEM), and green bonds that finance environmentally friendly projects are important economic tools. These mechanisms facilitate the widespread adoption of low-carbon technologies and make sustainable investments more financially accessible.

Adaptation and Supportive Policies

Climate policies must encompass not only emission reductions but also preparedness for climate impacts and societal transformation. Within this scope:

• Adaptation Strategies include projects designed to enhance social and ecological resilience in critical areas such as agriculture, water management, urban planning, coastal protection, and disaster management.
• Just Transition Mechanisms aim to provide social protection, retraining programs, and new employment opportunities for workers, communities, and sectors affected by the shift away from fossil fuels.
• Public Awareness and Education Programs seek to raise public awareness, encourage individual and institutional behavioral change, and strengthen societal acceptance of policy implementation.

The holistic and coordinated implementation of these instruments enhances the effectiveness of climate policies and contributes to achieving long-term sustainability goals.

Evolution of Climate Policies in Türkiye

Türkiye’s climate change agenda began to take shape in the 1990s and gained institutional dimensions with its accession to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2004 and the Kyoto Protocol in 2009. For a long time, Türkiye avoided setting binding emission reduction targets, citing “special circumstances.” However, in 2021, it ratified the Paris Agreement and declared a “net-zero emissions” target for 2053, marking a significant shift in its climate policy. In this context, Türkiye submitted an updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) committing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 41% compared to a business-as-usual scenario by 2030. To coordinate climate policies, the Presidency of Climate Change was established under the Ministry of Environment, Urbanization and Climate Change.

Türkiye Climate Law

After prolonged preparations, Türkiye’s first comprehensive climate law was adopted by parliament. The law establishes a general framework for achieving the 2053 net-zero target and specifically foresees the establishment of an Emissions Trading System (ETS) aligned with the European Green Deal. However, the law has been criticized by civil society organizations, academics, and experts on several grounds. Major criticisms include the absence of absolute emission reduction targets, lack of a concrete timeline for phasing out fossil fuels—particularly coal—insufficient just transition mechanisms, and a preparatory process that was not sufficiently participatory or transparent.

Policies in Implementation

In recent years, Türkiye has made notable progress in renewable energy. Significant increases in solar and wind energy capacity have been achieved through the Renewable Energy Resource Support Mechanism (YEKDEM) and Renewable Energy Resource Areas (YEKA) tendering processes. As of 2025, the share of renewable energy sources in total installed capacity has exceeded 59%. Under the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan, efforts are underway to improve energy efficiency in industry, buildings, transport, and energy sectors. Additionally, preparatory work is ongoing to establish a national ETS in alignment with the European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). At the local level, the goal is to develop Local Climate Change Action Plans for all provinces.

Challenges and Criticisms

Türkiye faces several structural challenges in its climate policies. The energy system’s heavy dependence on imported fossil fuels, particularly coal, remains one of the most significant barriers. Since 1990, Türkiye’s greenhouse gas emissions have more than doubled. National targets, based on an “emissions reduction from growth” approach, are considered insufficiently ambitious internationally and are not aligned with the global 1.5 °C target. This situation renders Türkiye’s position in the international climate regime contentious.

Moreover, the risk of falling behind the pace of the global green transition and the economic pressures imposed by the CBAM on export-oriented sectors compel Türkiye to take faster and more comprehensive steps. At the same time, limited public debate on climate policies has resulted in weak societal demand and political ownership. These factors necessitate that Türkiye accelerate its domestic emission reductions and align more closely with global climate policies.