North Macedonia

North Macedonia (officially the Republic of North Macedonia), located in the Balkan Peninsula, place is a landlocked small country. It is bordered by Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south, Albania to the west and Serbia to the north. The country has an area of 25,713 km² and is geographically highly mountainous. Its capital and largest city, with a population of approximately 600,000, is Skopje. North Macedonia peacefully gained its independence in 1991 following the dissolution of Yugoslavia and was known as Macedonia for long years. However, a naming dispute with Greece constituted a important in international politics, and the country’s name was changed to the Republic of North Macedonia through the Prespa Agreement signed in 2018. This change officially came into effect in 2019. With a population of approximately 1.84 million, North Macedonia exhibits significant ethnic and linguistic diversity and became a NATO member in 2020, taking important steps toward beginning full membership negotiations with the Europe Union.

Flag and Coat of Arms of the Republic of North Macedonia

National Anthem of North Macedonia

The national anthem of North Macedonia, Denes nad Makedonija (Over Macedonia), was written during the Second World War as part of the Macedonian resistance movement and first performed in 1942 at an open event in Struga. The lyrics were composed by the poet Vlado Maleski and the music by Todor Skalovski. Used unofficially as the anthem of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia during the Yugoslav period, it was officially adopted as North Macedonia’s national anthem on 11 August 1992 after independence.

The anthem’s lyrics emphasize the Macedonian people’s struggle for freedom, referencing the Ilinden Uprising of 1903 against the Ottoman Empire and the short-lived Kruševo Republic. It honors national heroes such as Goce Delčev, Pitu Guli, Dame Gruev and Sandanski like, reflecting the spirit of national union and independence. Although the country’s name was changed to North Macedonia under the Prespa Agreement, the anthem’s lyrics have been preserved and continue to serve as a symbol of Macedonian identity.

History of North Macedonia

Ancient and Medieval Period

The territory of North Macedonia has historically been a crossroads of various civilizations. In antiquity, peoples such as the Paeonians, Illyrians and Thracians inhabited the region; in the 4th century BCE, Macedonian King Philip II conquered the entire area and incorporated it into the Kingdom of Macedonia. In 146 BCE, after the Roman Empire seized Macedonia, the region became part of the Roman province of Macedonia and, following the division of the Roman Empire in 395, came under Roman (Byzantine) rule. Between the 6th and 7th centuries, Slavic settlements transformed the region’s ethnic and cultural landscape; by the 9th century, it became part of the First Bulgarian Empire.

The city of Ohrid became the capital of a duration Bulgarian Empire during the reign of Tsar Samuil in the 10th century and emerged as a major religious and cultural center. Although the Byzantine Empire reasserted control over the region in the 11th century, in subsequent centuries Macedonian territories changed hands among Byzantine, Bulgarian and Serbian states. In the mid-14th century, Skopje came under the rule of Serbian Emperor Stefan Dušan and became the center of a period empire, but by the end of the same century, Ottoman Turks began conquering the region and entering The Balkans.

Ottoman Period (14th–20th centuries)

The territory of North Macedonia came under Ottoman rule at the end of the 14th century and remained part of the Ottoman Rumelia Eyalet for approximately five centuries. Under Ottoman administration, the region’s demographic and cultural structure was reshaped; numerous mosques, caravanserai, bathhouse and bridge were constructed. In the 19th century, as Ottoman authority weakened, nationalist uprisings began to emerge in the region.

As a result of the Ottoman-Russian War in 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano temporarily ceded much of Macedonia to Bulgaria, but due to intervention by the Great Powers, the same year’s Treaty of Berlin returned the region to the Ottoman Empire. Macedonian Slavs intensified efforts for independence, culminating in the Ilinden Uprising on 2 August 1903. The short-lived Kruševo Republic, declared from Kruševo, was brutally suppressed by Ottoman forces.

Pre- and During the Yugoslav Period

The Balkan Wars, beginning in 1912, resulted in the withdrawal of Ottoman rule from the Balkans. During the First Balkan War, the Ottoman Empire lost its territories in the region, but the victorious Balkan states could not agree on dividing Macedonian lands. As a result of the Second Balkan War, which began in 1913, most of Macedonia was shared between Serbia and Greece; Bulgaria managed to acquire only a only portion of the region.

During World War I (1914–1918), Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Central Powers in hopes of reclaiming lost Macedonian territories and briefly occupied the region. However, after its defeat, Bulgaria was forced to relinquish Macedonia once again. After the war, in 1918, the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) incorporated the territory of present-day North Macedonia, known as Vardar Macedonia.

During World War II (1941–1945), Bulgaria, allied with the Axis Powers, reoccupied the region; however, after the war ended in 1945, the Yugoslav Federation assumed control. In 1944, under the initiative of Yugoslav leader Marshal Tito, steps were taken to establish a republic in Macedonia. Within the Yugoslav Federation, the Socialist Republic of Macedonia was created as an equal founding republic. In the same year, the foundations of the modern Macedonian literary language were codified based on the Resen-Bitola (Manastır) dialect, and the Macedonian language was officially recognized.

During this period, efforts were made to strengthen Macedonian national identity; however, neighbor Bulgaria did not recognize the Macedonian language and identity as distinct, viewing them as part of its own national history. During the post-1945 Yugoslav period, Macedonia developed its own parliament, government and educational institutions within the socialist federal structure. Industrialization and urbanization gained momentum during the socialist era, but economically, Macedonia lagged behind other Yugoslav republics.

Independence and After

As the Eastern Bloc began to dissolve and ethnic nationalism rose within the Yugoslav Federation, a referendum on independence was held in Macedonia on 8 September 1991. Seventy-four percent of the population voted “yes” to independence, approving the establishment of the Republic of Macedonia. Thus, country became one of the last peaceful republics to secede from Yugoslavia. However, in the early years of independence, the country faced a serious international dispute with Greece over its name. Greece found it unacceptable that the name “Macedonia” was identical to its own northern region, viewing it as a threat to its sovereignty and historical heritage, and refused to recognize the new state by that name.

Due to this dispute, Macedonia was admitted to the United Nations in 1993 under the provisional name “The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia” (FYROM). In 1994, Greece protested not only the name but also Macedonia’s newly adopted flag (featuring the 16-ray Vergina Sun symbol) and imposed an economic embargo on the country. This situation severely damaged the young nation’s economy. Eventually, in 1995, a mediated interim agreement was reached: Macedonia changed the design of its flag and both countries agreed to begin negotiations on the name issue.

During the first decade of independence, North Macedonia largely preserved internal peace, but its structure remained ethnically sensitive. The Albanian minority, comprising approximately one-quarter of the population, demanded expanded rights regarding language and local governance. In early 2001, an armed group of Albanian origin (the National Liberation Army) launched an insurgency in the northwestern part of the country. This low-intensity internal conflict, lasting approximately seven moon, was ended through international mediation.

From the mid-2000s, North Macedonia’s primary strategic goal became completing European-Atlantic integration. Finally, in July 2022, following an agreement with Bulgaria, the country began EU accession negotiations and continues progressing toward integration with European-Atlantic institutions.

Geography

North Macedonia is a landlocked country located in the center of the Balkan Peninsula in Southeast Europe. With an area of 25,713 km², most of its territory is covered by mountains and valleys. The country is characterized by a predominantly land topography and frequently experiences earthquakes. Macedonia’s geographical structure consists of wide valleys and basin systems extending northeast-southwest, surrounded by mountain ranges. The Vardar River Valley forms the country’s geographical backbone, creating a main corridor from east to west. The Šar Mountains, Bistra and Korab Mountains lie to the west and north, while the Osogovo and Belasitsa Mountains extend parallel to the Bulgarian border in the east. The country’s highest point is Mount Korab at 2,764 meters (Golem Korab). This peak, located on the border between North Macedonia and Albania, is the highest peak in both countries. Mount Titov Vrv at 2,748 meters and other high peaks in the Šar region constitute other significant summits. The average rakı is around 700 meters, indicating that the country generally has a high-altitude geography.

Geography of North Macedonia

Rivers

Extensive plains are limited in the country; the largest plain systems are the Vardar Plain in the central section of the Vardar River and the Ovče Pole Plateau in the east. The longest river in North Macedonia is the Vardar River, stretching 388 km. It originates in the northwestern part of the country, flows through Skopje, and continues southeastward to empty into the Aegean Sea near the Greek city of Thessaloniki. Another important river, the Crni Drim, originates from Lake Ohrid and flows northward, entering Albanian territory before reaching the Adriatic Sea. Other significant rivers in the country include the Bregalnica River.

North Macedonia is endowed with several large natural lakes. The most important among them are:

• Lake Ohrid: Recognized as one of Europe’s deepest and oldest freshwater lakes, with a surface area of 358 km² and a depth of 288 meters. This lake, which has existed for approximately 1.5 million years, hosts over 200 endemic species and is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The town of Ohrid and its surroundings on the lake’s shore are also protected by UNESCO.
• Lake Prespa: At an elevation of 853 meters, it is one of the highest tectonic lakes in the Balkans. It is shared among three countries: North Macedonia, Albania and Greece.
• Lake Dojran: With a surface area of approximately 43 km², this lake is divided equally between North Macedonia and Greece. It is known for its rich fishing tradition.

Lake Prespa (Thanos Metallinos)

National Parks and Natural Conservation Areas

North Macedonia’s ecology, three major national parks and various natural conservation areas are protected:

1. Mavrovo National Park: Located in the west, this national park encompasses the Mavrovo Lake and surrounding mountainous areas. It is also used as a winter sports center.
2. Galičica National Park: Situated in the mountainous region between Lake Ohrid and Lake Prespa, it provides habitat for various endemic plant and animal species.
3. Pelister National Park: Located on Baba Mountain near Bitola, this park is particularly known for its forests.

These natural areas preserve North Macedonia’s rich biological diversity and serve as important destinations for ecotourism.

Climate

Despite its small area, North Macedonia exhibits climatic diversity due to its varied geographical features. Generally, a temperate continental climate prevails; winters are cold and snow and summers are hot and dry. Average annual temperatures range from approximately 8°C in the mountainous northwestern regions to 13–15°C in the central and southern areas.

Four distinct seasons are experienced throughout the country, but three main climate zones are observed depending on topography and elevation:

1. Temperate continental climate: Found in the northern and interior regions. Winter temperatures can drop below freezing, and heavy snowfall occurs in higher elevations.
2. Semi-Mediterranean climate: In the southern and eastern regions, influenced by the Aegean Sea, winters are milder and summers are hot and dry.
3. Mountain (alpine) climate: In high mountainous areas, particularly around the Šar Mountains, Korab and Baba Mountain, summers are cool and winters are long and harsh. Snow cover remains throughout much of the year in these regions.

In the capital Skopje, the average temperature in January is approximately 0°C, while in July it ranges between 20–25°C. Regions in the southeastern part of the country, such as Gevgelija and Demir Door, are the hottest, with temperatures exceeding 40°C during July and August being common.

Precipitation Regime

North Macedonia lies in the transition zone between the Adriatic and Black Sea climate systems, resulting in regional variations in precipitation. The general trend is lower rainfall in the eastern and southern areas and higher rainfall in the western mountainous regions.

• In the southeastern plains, annual precipitation ranges between 400–500 mm,
• In the western mountainous areas (particularly Mavrovo, Šar and Korab Mountains), this amount exceeds 1,000 mm.

Spring and autumn are the seasons with the highest rainfall, while write months are particularly dry along the Vardar Valley. Dry periods can negatively affect agriculture, while sudden and intense rainfall can occur in spring.

In recent years, climate change has led to an increase in extreme weather events. Particularly the heatwaves and droughts experienced in 2007 and 2012 have increased the risks of forest fires and water shortages in the country.

Average Monthly Precipitation and Temperature Graph for North Macedonia

Demographics

North Macedonia’s population was last updated by the 2021 population census. According to the census results, the resident population is 1,836,713. This figure represents a decrease of approximately 185,000 since the 2002 census. The population decline is attributed to low birth rates and emigration of the young population abroad.

Additionally, North Macedonian citizens residing abroad for more than 12 months were temporarily counted, bringing the total to 2,097,319. However, demographic analyses are based on the actual resident population of 1.84 million.

Of the population, 50.4% are female and 49.6% are male, with a slight female majority.

Ethnic Composition

North Macedonia has a highly diverse ethnic population. According to the 2021 census, the permanent resident population consists of:

• 58.44% of Macedonian (Slavic) origin.
• 24.30% of Albanian origin, making this group the largest ethnic minority.
• 3.86% of Turkish origin.
• 2.53% Roma (Gypsy), 1.30% Serbian, 0.87% Bosniak and 0.47% Vlach (Aromanian) origin.
• Approximately 7% did not declare an ethnic identity or were recorded administratively.

Ethnic distribution varies geographically:

• The Albanian population is concentrated primarily in the northwestern part of the country (in cities such as Tetovo, Gostivar and Debar).
• Turkish and Bosniak communities have a significant presence in cities such as Skopje, Kalkandelen (Tetovo), Kumanovo and Resen.
• Vlachs traditionally live in small communities around Manastır (Bitola) and its surroundings.

Linguistic Structure

The official language of North Macedonia is Macedonian, belonging to the South Slavic language family. According to the 2021 population census:

• 61.4% of the population declared Macedonian as their mother tongue.
• 24.3% speak Albanian as their mother tongue. Albanian has official status in municipalities with a concentrated Albanian population and is the second most widely spoken language nationwide.
• 3.4% speak Turkish, 1.7% speak Romani, 0.6% speak Serbian and 0.8% speak Bosnian.
• A small segment uses local languages such as Aromanian (Vlach).

Following the 2001 Ohrid Agreement, the use of Albanian in public institutions was expanded, and the 2019 Law on the Use of Languages strengthened its official status nationwide. In some schools in North Macedonia, Turkish education is provided for the Turkish minority.

Religious Structure

North Macedonia’s religious structure exhibits a strong correlation with ethnic identity. According to the 2021 population census:

• 46.1% are Christians affiliated with the Macedonian Orthodox Church (mostly ethnic Macedonians).
• 32.2% are Muslims (primarily Albanians, Turks and Roma).
• Smaller groups include Catholics (0.3%), Protestants and other religious communities.

Pie chart showing the religious distribution of North Macedonia in 2021

Religious holidays (Christmas, Easter, Ramadan and Sacrifice Holiday) are recognized as official holiday. The Macedonian Orthodox Church declared its independence from the Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate in 1967. However, for many years it was not recognized by other Orthodox churches; its recognition by the Serbian Orthodox Church in 2022 was a significant development.

Age Structure and Demographic Trends

North Macedonia has an aging population structure. According to the 2021 census:

• The largest age group, at 7%, is 40–44 years old.
• Children aged 0–14 constitute 16% of the population, while those aged 65 and over make up 14%.
• The median age is 39.

The fertility rate has declined to 1.5 child/woman, below the replacement level. Economic problems and unemployment since the 1990s have led tens of thousands of North Macedonian citizens, particularly the young and educated, to emigrate abroad, primarily to West Europe. These factors have resulted in a very low population growth rate (around 0.1%) and population decline in some regions.

Urbanization and Migration Trends

• The urbanization rate in North Macedonia is 58%, with more than half the population living in cities.
• The largest city is Skopje (~500,000 people), followed by medium-sized cities such as Kumanovo (~100,000), Tetovo (~90,000), Bitola (Manastır), Gostivar and Prilep.
• In rural areas, the population is primarily engaged in agriculture and livestock farming, while in cities, the service sector and industry dominate employment.
• Brain drain remains one of the country’s most significant demographic and economic challenges.

International Relations

Since independence, North Macedonia has prioritized integration into European and Atlantic institutions, good relations with neighbors and regional stability as its primary target. However, international relations initially faced diplomatic challenges, particularly due to the name issue.

Relations with Greece (Name Issue)

Greece argued that the name “Macedonia” was identical to its own northern region and posed a threat to its national identity, refusing to recognize the Republic of Macedonia by that name from 1991 to 1993. It accepted the country’s UN membership under the provisional name “The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia” (FYROM). In 1994, Greece imposed an economic embargo, but lifted it following the 1995 Interim Agreement.

The Prespa Agreement was signed in 2018, changing the name of the Republic of Macedonia to the “Republic of North Macedonia.” Through this agreement, Greece removed its blockade on North Macedonia’s NATO and EU accession processes, and relations between the two countries began to improve. Today, diplomatic and economic cooperation is increasing, although nationalist circles continue to criticize the agreement.

Relations with Bulgaria

Bulgaria, one of the first countries to recognize North Macedonia’s independence in 1992, considers the Macedonian language a dialect of Bulgarian, while North Macedonia insists on its own identity independent. In 2017, a Friendship Agreement established a joint historical commission between the two countries, but Bulgaria vetoed North Macedonia’s EU accession negotiations in 2020 over historical and linguistic issues. In 2022, a mediated agreement under France lifted the veto, sparking debates in but domestic politics.

Relations with Albania

Relations between North Macedonia and Albania have generally been friendly, with both countries aiming for EU and NATO integration. Albania supported North Macedonia during the 2001 crisis and backed the Ohrid Agreement process. Their EU accession processes have been aligned, but Bulgaria’s veto has negatively affected Albania as well. Economic ties are growing, with transportation and energy projects gaining prominence. The two countries cooperate in regional initiatives such as “Open Balkan.”

Relations with Serbia and Kosovo

North Macedonia and Serbia established close relations due to their shared Yugoslav past, but North Macedonia’s recognition of Kosovo in 2008 caused discomfort in Serbia. Nevertheless, the two countries continue cooperation in trade, transportation and energy.

Relations with Kosovo are friendly; North Macedonia signed an agreement in 2009 to define the border between the two countries and has contributed to the KFOR peacekeeping force.

European Union and NATO

North Macedonia applied for EU membership in 2004, but the process was delayed due to disputes with Greece and Bulgaria. Formal negotiations began in July 2022, and the country continues its efforts on rule of law and reforms. The NATO process accelerated after the Prespa Agreement, and on 27 March 2020, North Macedonia became the 30th member of NATO. The country contributes to NATO and UN peacekeeping missions, including in Kosovo.

Relations with Turkey

Turkey was among the first countries to recognize North Macedonia’s independence and supported Skopje during its name crisis with Greece. Turkey is among the countries supporting North Macedonia’s NATO and EU processes. Economic relations accelerated with the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) signed in 2000, and Turkey has become one of the largest investors in North Macedonia. Investments continue in construction, banking, energy and industry sectors. Cultural ties are strong, with Ottoman heritage preserved through TİKA and Yunus Emre Institute, and educational projects supported. The International Balkan University holds a significant place in academic cooperation between the two countries.

Under military cooperation, Turkey has provided training and logistics support to the North Macedonian army and has conducted joint exercises within the NATO framework. Approximately 80,000 Turks live in North Macedonia, and Turkish political parties and civil society organizations advocate for the rights of the Turkish community in the country.

Other International Organizations

North Macedonia is also a member of the United Nations (UN), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Council of Europe and the World Trade Organization (WTO). It joined the UN in 1993 under its provisional name and, following the official name change in 2019, is now recorded in UN records as “North Macedonia.” Regionally, it participates in initiatives such as the Southeast European Cooperation Process (SEECP) and the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA). Additionally, it holds observer status in the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (due to its Muslim population) and the Francophonie Organization (due to its interest in French).

Armed Forces of North Macedonia

North Macedonia’s armed forces are known as the Army of North Macedonia (Armija na Severna Makedonija - ASM). Army demonstrates its commitment to ensuring national security, participating in international peace operations and strengthening integration with NATO. Conscription was abolished in 2008, and a fully voluntariness professional military system was adopted. Due to geographical reasons, there are no sea forces.

After becoming a full NATO member on 27 March 2020, North Macedonia made significant changes to its defense doctrine and accelerated its modernization process. The country began replacing its former Yugoslav-era military equipment with NATO-standard weapons and vehicles, particularly acquiring modern military equipment such as armored personnel carriers (JLTV) from USA. Additionally, cybersecurity, communication infrastructure and command-and-control systems are being aligned with NATO standards. To develop qualified personnel, officers participate in military training in NATO countries such as Turkey, the United States and Germany.

The Army of North Macedonia actively participates in international peacekeeping missions, serving in NATO and UN operations such as the NATO Force in Kosovo (KFOR), EUFOR Althea in Bosnia and Herzegovina and UNIFIL in Lebanon. It has also deployed troops to Afghanistan’s ISAF and Resolute Support missions. These contributions strengthen the country’s integration into international security policies and establish it as a reliable partner within NATO.

In terms of defense spending, North Macedonia has pledged to increase its expenditures from 1.3% of GDP in 2020 to the NATO target of 2% by 2024. As of 2023, the defense budget was set at approximately 320 million euros, allocated for modernization, training and enhancing NATO-integrated military capacity. In addition, the army cooperates with civil authorities during natural disasters and social crises, providing logistical support and participating in rescue operations in disaster areas. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the army supported the healthcare system and played an active role in salt, fire and earthquake disasters.

Military Personnel and Structure

The Armed Forces of North Macedonia consist of a total of 72,500 personnel. However, the majority of this number is made up of reserve units. The army is structured as follows:

• Total Military Personnel: 72,500 (3.4%)
• Active Military Personnel: 9,000 (0.4%)
• Reserve Personnel: 60,000 (2.8%)

These figures indicate that North Macedonia’s defense strategy favors a strong reserve system over active units.

Land Forces

Black Forces constitute the main defense capability of the country. The main components are:

• Mechanized Infantry Brigade – Forms the core structure of land units.
• Special Operations Units – Elite units capable of rapid intervention, compatible with NATO operations.
• Logistics Support Unit – Provides supply, ammunition and military equipment support to the army.

Current inventory of North Macedonia’s land forces are as follows:

• Tanks: 20 (operational: 11)
• Armored Vehicles: 1,108 (operational: 609)
• Towed Artillery Systems: 150 (operational: 83)
• Multiple Launch Rocket Systems (MLRS): 17 (operational: 9)
• Self-Propelled Howitzers: 0

These figures indicate that North Macedonia has limited capacity in heavy artillery systems but possesses a certain level of capability in armored vehicle and artillery support systems.

Air Forces

North Macedonia’s Air Force has limited capacity and does not operate combat aircraft. The country’s air defense is provided by NATO members (particularly Greece and Italy).

Air Force inventory:

• Total Aircraft: 20 (operational: 11)
• Combat Aircraft: 0
• Trainer Aircraft: 10 (operational: 6)
• Attack Helicopters: 4 (operational: 2)
• General Purpose Helicopters: 10 (operational: 6)
• Transport Aircraft: 0

The primary mission of the air force is logistical support, personnel transport and aerial reconnaissance. With no offensive capability, the country’s airspace is protected by NATO member countries.

Economy of North Macedonia

North Macedonia is a small-scale market economy that transitioned after the dissolution of Yugoslavia. As of 2025, its nominal GDP is approximately $17 billion. Per capita income, calculated using Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), is approximately $23,000, placing the country in the upper-middle-income category. It has largely completed its transition to a market economy through privatization and structural reforms, but in recent years it has faced economic challenges due to global inflation and fluctuations in energy prices.

According to the CIA World Factbook, North Macedonia’s economy is recovering from the effects of energy price volatility and the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the energy crisis of 2022 caused inflation to rise rapidly, reaching double-digit figures. By 2023, stabilization measures brought inflation down to the 3–4% range.

The sectoral distribution of the economy is as follows:

• Service sector: Accounts for 55–60% of the economy, the largest share.
• Industrial sector: Accounts for approximately 25%, ranking second.
• Agricultural sector: Accounts for around 10% and remains an important source of employment nationwide.

Agriculture, Industry and Service Sectors

Agricultural Sector

North Macedonia’s agricultural sector is concentrated particularly in the southern regions and the Vardar Plain. Tobacco, grape, fruit (apple, apricot), vegetables (peppers, tomatoes), cereals and livestock products are the main agricultural production. The Tikveš region is famous for its vineyards and wine production, and the country is one of the major wine export centers in the Balkans. Tobacco farming has long been the country’s most valuable agricultural product.

Industrial Sector

The industrial sector has traditionally been based on iron and steel, chemicals and textiles. However, in recent years, foreign investment has spurred growth in the automotive parts and electronics assembly industries. Several Free Economic Zones have been established in North Macedonia, with German companies being particularly active investors. Electrical equipment, catalytic converters and automotive spare parts are among the most produced and exported industrial goods.

The “Zelezarnica” iron and steel plant, located in Skopje and once one of the country’s largest industrial enterprises, continues production, although its capacity has declined. The textile and leather industries remain important for employment in cities such as Štip and Prilep.

Service Sector

In North Macedonia, trade, transportation, tourism and finance are the most important areas within the service sector. The banking sector is relatively small, with the majority of the market controlled by foreign banks (particularly Austria and Greek banks). The country’s money unit is the Macedonian Denar (MKD), which follows a stable weave policy against the euro. However, due to global inflationary pressures, inflation reached 14% in 2022 and was reduced to 3–4% by 2023.

Ohrid (Jakov Jovanoski)

Labor Market and Employment Situation

Unemployment in North Macedonia has remained high for many years. Unemployment, which exceeded 30% at the beginning of the 2000s, gradually decreased to 15.8% in 2021, 14.4% in 2022 and approximately 13% as of 2023. Unemployment among the youth remains high, particularly in the 15–24 age group, where job-finding rates are low. This situation contributes to the emigration of skilled labor (brain drain) and negatively affects the country’s economic growth potential.

Foreign Trade and Economic Growth

North Macedonia’s economy is export-oriented. As of 2022:

• Exports: $10.1 billion
• Imports: $13 billion

North Macedonia runs a trade deficit, which is offset by remittances from citizens living abroad.

Main export partners are:

• Germany (42%) – The largest trading partner, primarily for automotive parts.
• Serbia (8%)
• Greece (7%)
• Bulgaria (5%)
• Italy (3%)

Main imported goods are:

• Crude oil, natural gas, electricity and precious metals (e.g., platinum)

Main import partners are:

• United Kingdom (16%) – Holds a large share due to imports of platinum-group metals.
• Greece (13%) – Leads in petroleum products and electricity imports.
• Germany (9%)
• Serbia (8%)
• China (6%)

Economic Growth and Investment Climate

North Macedonia’s economy achieved an average annual growth rate of 3–4% during the 2000s. However:

• Temporary stagnation occurred due to the 2009 global financial crisis and the 2012 Eurozone crisis.
• The economy contracted by 4.5% in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
• In 2021, the economy grew by 4%, but growth slowed to 2% in 2022 due to the energy crisis.
• Growth for 2023 is projected to be in the 2–3% range.

Government has largely completed privatizations, but state involvement continues in energy, transportation and public services. It aims to increase foreign direct investment (FDI) through investment incentives and a low corporate tax rate (10%).

North Macedonia: Tourism, Culture and Cuisine

North Macedonia is one of the Balkans’ important tourism destinations, thanks to its rich historical heritage, natural beauty and multicultural structure. The country possesses great potential for both cultural and nature tourism, with historical sites from antiquity to the Ottoman period, lakes and mountains stretching from the capital Skopje to Ohrid, Bitola (Manastır) to Mavrovo.

Summary of Ottoman Heritage

North Macedonia, having been under Ottoman rule for approximately five centuries, hosts numerous Ottoman-era structures such as mosques, caravanserais, bathhouses, bridges and tekkes. These buildings carry significant traces of Ottoman architecture and cultural heritage.

Skopje

The capital Skopje was one of the important trade and culture centers of the Ottoman Balkans and retains an Ottoman-era bazaar to this day. Its most important Ottoman heritage sites include:

• Sultan Murad Mosque (1436), Mustafa Pasha Mosque (1492), Isa Bey Mosque
• Kuršumli Han, Kapan Han and Sulu Han (commercial and lodging centers)
• Daut Pasha Hamam (now an art gallery)
• Taško Bridge (Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, 15th century) (one of the most important Ottoman structures over the Vardar River)

Sultan II. Murad Mosque

Manastır (Bitola)

• İshak Çelebi Mosque (1508): The largest Ottoman mosque in the city.
• Yeni Mosque (1558) and Haydar Kadı Mosque
• Clock Tower (17th century), Bedesten and Ottoman-era commercial structures
• Manastır Military High School: The military school where Mustafa Kemal Atatürk received his education.

Manastır City (Micko Damnjanovski)

Kalkandelen (Tetovo)

• Aladža Mosque (Pasha Mosque): An Ottoman structure with colorful decorations, rare in the Balkans.
• Arabati Baba Tekke: A 16th-century dervish lodge belonging to the Bektashi order.

View of Kalkandelen

Other Regions

• In Ohrid: Ali Pasha Mosque and Halveti Tekke
• In Resen: Niyazi Bey Palace (late Ottoman architecture)
• In Kumanova, Štip, Prilep, Veles and other towns: Ottoman bridges, clock towers and mosques

Ottoman heritage is an inseparable part of North Macedonia’s city fabric. With TİKA’s support, many sites such as Mustafa Pasha Mosque and Aladža Mosque have been restored and preserved.

Tourism

Tourism in North Macedonia is shaped around historical sites, natural beauty and cultural festivals. Its tourist regions include Ohrid, listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the capital Skopje, Bitola and Tetovo (Kalkandelen) known for their Ottoman heritage, and Mavrovo and Galičica National Parks renowned for their natural beauty.

Skopje

The capital Skopje is a dynamic city that blends historical and modern elements. After suffering major damage in the 1963 earthquake, it was rebuilt with post-Soviet architecture and statue projects. However, Ottoman heritage remains preserved in historical areas.

• Taško Bridge (Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge) over the Vardar River: Built by the Ottomans in the 15th century, it connects the modern city center with the Turkish Bazaar.
• Skopje Turkish Bazaar (Stara Čaršija): A center preserving the Ottoman atmosphere with narrow streets paved with Albanian cobblestones, mosques, caravanserais and traditional craft workshops.
• • Sultan Murad Mosque (1436)
  • Mustafa Pasha Mosque (1492)
  • Kuršumli Han (16th century)
  • Daut Pasha Hamam (15th century)
• Skopje Fortress (Skopsko Kale): A fortress dating back to the Roman and Byzantine periods, located on a hill dominating the city.
• Republic Square and the Statue of Alexander the Great: Important landmarks reflecting the city’s modern identity.

Ohrid and Lake Ohrid

One of the country’s most important tourist destinations is Ohrid and Lake Ohrid. Lake Ohrid, one of Europe’s oldest and deepest lakes, has been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List for its unique ecosystem (1979). Ohrid, once known as the “Jerusalem of the Balkans,” was a major religious center in the Middle Ages. The most notable historical structures in the region include:

• Church of St. John at Kaneo (13th century): Famous for its unique view overlooking Lake Ohrid.
• St. Clement and Panteleimon Monastery (Plaošnik): One of the important centers of medieval Macedonian culture.
• St. Sophia Church: Notable for its Byzantine-era frescoes and architecture.

Ohrid is also known for the Ohrid Summer Festival. Held annually in July, this festival is an international cultural event featuring classical music concerts, classical performances and artistic activities.

Lake Ohrid

Bitola (Manastır)

Bitola, known as “Manastır” during the Ottoman period, was regarded as a diplomatic center of the Balkans. Ottoman heritage remains strong in the city:

• Manastır Military High School: The military school where Mustafa Kemal Atatürk studied from 1896 to 1898 and is now used as a museum.
• İshak Çelebi Mosque (1508): The largest Ottoman mosque in the city.
• Clock Tower (17th century) and Bedesten: Important elements of Ottoman commercial life.

Nature Tourism and National Parks

North Macedonia also has great potential for nature tourism:

• Mavrovo National Park: An important center for winter tourism and outdoor sports.
• Galičica National Park: Located between Lake Ohrid and Lake Prespa, offering unique natural landscapes.
• Kokino Megalithic Observatory (c. 1800 BCE): An ancient observatory listed by UNESCO as part of the world’s astronomical heritage.

Culture and Festivals

North Macedonia possesses a rich cultural heritage reflecting Slav-Macedonian culture as well as Ottoman, Albanian and Novel influences. Traditional music, folk dances and literature are important components of this cultural mosaic.

• Skopje Jazz Festival: An annual festival that hosts internationally renowned musicians.
• Struga Poetry Evenings: A prestigious literary event since the 1960s, bringing together poets from around the world.
• Ohrid Summer Festival: An international cultural event featuring classical music and arts.

Cuisine of North Macedonia

North Macedonian cuisine is a synthesis of Balkan and Ottoman culinary traditions. Vegetables, meat and dairy products are the fundamental elements of the cuisine.

Traditional Dishes

• Tavče Gravče: Baked dried beans in a clay pot, considered the national dish.
• Ajvar: A sauce made from roasted red peppers and eggplant, consumed for breakfast or as a meze.
• Börek: Popular in various fillings such as cheese, spinach or minced meat; Bosnian börek (kol börek) is especially widely consumed.
• Šopska Salad: A summer salad made with tomatoes, cucumbers, onions and white cheese.
• Kebapi (Ćevapi): Finger-shaped meatballs made from lamb or beef, served with chopped onions.
• Turlitava: A traditional stew combining vegetables and meat.

Desserts and Beverages

• Trileçe: A milk-based dessert of Albanian origin.
• Baklava, Tulumba: Ottoman-style desserts are common.
• Boza: A sweet fermented beverage made from millet.