This article was automatically translated from the original Turkish version.
The United States of America (USA) is a federal republic located in the central part of the North American continent. Comprising forty-eight contiguous states, as well as Alaska and Hawaii, the country holds a pivotal position in the international system due to its vast territory, complex political structure, diverse population, and globally influential economic capacity. Its capital is Washington, D.C., and its largest city is New York. The federal government is founded on the principle of separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
Economically, the USA occupies a central role in global trade, financial markets, technology production, and the structure of multinational corporations. The simultaneous development of diverse sectors—including industry, services, agriculture, energy, and information technology—has established the country as one of the primary hubs of global economic activity. Modern scientific research institutions, universities, and technology centers contribute significantly to international innovation capacity across numerous fields.
The social fabric of the country is shaped by ethnic, cultural, and religious diversity resulting from historical migration patterns. This multi-layered population structure has given rise to a dynamic societal framework in which diverse sociocultural traditions coexist. American political culture has been formed around the principles of federalism, individual rights and freedoms, the rule of law, and representative democracy based on regular elections.
In the field of military and defense, the United States is generally regarded today as the world's most powerful military force due to its immense military capacity, global network of bases and deployments, technological superiority, and the scale of its defense expenditures. Its multi-layered defense structure, encompassing land, air, naval, and space forces as well as nuclear deterrent capabilities, along with its position within NATO and participation in various regional security arrangements, constitute the fundamental components of its role in the global defense architecture.
In foreign policy, the United States wields extensive influence in the domains of security, economics, diplomacy, and global governance, stemming from the roles it has assumed within international institutions established after World War II and the alliances it has cultivated. Its position in NATO, regional alliances, economic partnerships, and representation in international organizations form the institutional foundation of its foreign policy. With its geographic size, diversity of natural resources, advanced technological infrastructure, military capacity, and global connectivity, the United States is defined as a multifaceted power in the contemporary international system, exerting influence across political, economic, cultural, scientific, and defense dimensions.
The history of the United States begins with the arrival of the first humans from Asia approximately 15,000 years ago. During this period, people migrated into North America via the Beringia land bridge, which connected Siberia to Alaska. As the last Ice Age ended and sea levels rose, this land connection disappeared, and the populations across the continent diversified into distinct cultural groups. These early human communities are referred to in archaeology as Paleo-Indians.
The colonial period of the United States refers to the era spanning from the late 16th century to the mid-18th century, during which European powers established permanent settlements in North America and competed for political, economic, and cultural dominance. This period was shaped by the rivalry among Spain, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, and especially England, leaving profound impacts on the continent’s indigenous populations and African-descended communities.
European exploration and colonization of North America began with the Spanish, who in the early 16th century established colonies along the coasts of Florida, Texas, and California. France’s expansion into the Americas gained momentum with the New France project, initiated in the 16th century. French settlers founded cities such as Quebec (1608) and Montreal along the Saint Lawrence River. In the south, centers like Detroit, Mobile, Baton Rouge (Red Stick), St. Louis, and New Orleans served as hubs for trade and missionary activity.
In the early 17th century, the Dutch purchased Manhattan Island from Indigenous peoples and established the colony of New Amsterdam (present-day New York). In the mid-17th century, the Swedes established the colony of New Sweden along the Delaware Valley; however, this territory came under Dutch control in 1655. These multi-national settlement efforts formed the early colonial mosaic of North America.
England’s colonization process began with the founding of Jamestown (Virginia Company) in 1607. This was followed by the establishment of the Plymouth Colony in 1620 and the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629. These settlements became the nucleus of a new social order shaped by commerce, the pursuit of religious freedom, and economic aspirations. Between 1620 and 1640, approximately 20,000 Puritans migrated to the New England region to escape religious persecution and established communities grounded in their religious beliefs.
The population of the colonies consisted of a diverse mix of farmers, artisans, adventurers, indentured servants, and migrants. In Pennsylvania, Quakers; in Maryland, Catholics; and in New England, Puritans established their own social orders based on distinct religious beliefs.
These regions developed distinct economic and cultural identities: trade and shipping dominated the North, while large-scale agriculture became defining in the South. Colonies such as Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, and South Carolina made significant contributions to the British economy through the production of tobacco and rice.
The arrival of Europeans in America represented an invasion process from the perspective of Indigenous peoples. Native societies suffered massive population losses due to epidemics, warfare, and forced displacement. As British colonization expanded, land conflicts intensified, and Indigenous populations were gradually pushed westward.
To address labor shortages, European powers turned to the African slave trade. Initially, the system of “indentured servitude” was prevalent, but by the late 17th century, slavery had become a permanent institution. In British, French, Spanish, and Dutch colonies, enslaved labor became the foundational workforce for sugar, cotton, and tobacco plantations. African-descended communities were not only coerced laborers but also became influential agents in shaping colonial culture.
In the mid-18th century, the political landscape of North America was divided among three major powers:
This competition reached its peak with the French and Indian War (1754–1763). The war was a struggle for dominance over territory and trade routes in North America between Britain and France. Britain emerged victorious against France and its ally Spain. Under the Treaty of Paris (1763), France ceded Canada and all its territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain; Spain ceded Florida to Britain, while the western portion of Louisiana passed to Spain. As a result of this treaty, France’s influence in the Americas was largely eliminated, and Britain became the dominant power on the continent. However, the war’s financial cost led the British government to impose new taxes on the colonies. Policies such as the Stamp Act intensified colonial discontent and fueled the emergence of independence movements.
The American War of Independence was a military and political struggle between the Thirteen British Colonies in North America and the British Empire from 1775 to 1783, which resulted in the birth of the United States of America.
The Seven Years’ War, which ended in 1763, imposed a heavy financial burden on Britain. The London government began imposing direct taxes on the American colonies to cover war expenses. Regulations such as the Stamp Act (1765) and the Townshend Acts (1767) sparked widespread resistance in the colonies under the slogan “no taxation without representation.” This tension reached its peak in 1773 with the Boston Tea Party. On the night of December 16, a group of colonial activists boarded ships in Boston Harbor and dumped crates of tea into the sea. In response to this event, known as the Boston Tea Party, Britain imposed harsh punitive measures and placed the government of Massachusetts under direct royal control.
The unfolding events strengthened solidarity among the colonies, leading to the convening of the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia later that same year. In April 1775, the Battles of Lexington and Concord marked the first armed confrontations. Soon afterward, the colonies united under the Continental Congress, formed the Continental Army, and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief. Thus, the local protest movement transformed into a full-scale war for independence.
The Declaration of Independence and the Political Dimension of the Revolution: On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. The document emphasized that all people are “created equal” and possess the right to choose their own rulers. The Declaration was not merely a proclamation of separation; it also became one of the foundational texts of modern democratic sovereignty.
In the early years of the war, the colonies faced immense challenges. The superiority of the British navy and its logistical strength exerted particular pressure, especially on the northern colonies. However, the victories at Trenton (1776) and Princeton (1777) secured Washington’s moral advantage. That same year, the Battle of Saratoga became a turning point that altered the course of the war. Following this victory, France formally entered the conflict in 1778 by signing treaties of alliance and trade with the United States of America.
Military Fronts and Developments (1778–1781): With France’s entry, the war acquired an international dimension. Britain found itself under military pressure simultaneously on fronts in Europe, the Caribbean, and India. During this period, British strategy shifted to focus primarily on the southern colonies. Nevertheless, American forces under the command of Nathanael Greene and Daniel Morgan achieved success through guerrilla tactics in battles such as Cowpens (1781).
The final phase of the war culminated in the siege of Yorktown, Virginia, by British forces under Lord Charles Cornwallis. As a result of a joint operation by American and French troops, Cornwallis surrendered on October 19, 1781, effectively ending the military phase of the war.
Peace of Paris and Recognition of Independence (1783): The Treaty of Paris served as the international document recognizing the independence of the United States of America. Under the treaty, Britain ceded to the new nation all territories west of the Appalachian Mountains; the eastern bank of the Mississippi River was incorporated into U.S. borders. Britain pledged to withdraw its troops but continued to enforce commercial restrictions, which became a source of diplomatic tensions in subsequent years.
Post-Revolutionary Political Organization (1781–1791): Near the end of the war, the Articles of Confederation (1781) came into effect, establishing the first governing framework characterized by a loose alliance among the states. However, the weakness of central authority led to economic instability. In 1787, the U.S. Constitution was adopted, creating a stronger federal structure. In 1791, the Bill of Rights was ratified, providing constitutional guarantees for individual liberties.
The Expansion Era in the United States was a period during which the nation established its political institutions, began expanding across the continent, witnessed increased democratic participation, and experienced the growth of social reforms. The Constitution entered into force in 1788, strengthening the federal government. The Louisiana Purchase (1803) under President Thomas Jefferson doubled the nation’s territorial size and initiated westward expansion. Following the War of 1812—triggered by British interference with American merchant ships and British support for Native American tribes—nationalism and a sense of independence intensified within the country. The Monroe Doctrine (1823) further defined the United States’ independent foreign policy by rejecting European intervention in the Americas.
During Andrew Jackson’s presidency (1829–1837), suffrage expanded, but thousands of Native Americans were forcibly relocated westward as a result of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. During the same period, the growth of railroads and agricultural production strengthened the national economy.
The annexation of Texas in 1845 and the subsequent Mexican-American War (1846–1848) resulted in California and the Southwest becoming part of the United States. The California Gold Rush of 1848 triggered massive westward migration.
During this era, religious revivals and reform movements—abolitionism, women’s rights, and educational reform—accelerated social change. However, conflicts over slavery and regional interests deepened divisions that would eventually lead to the Civil War.
Manifest Destiny was an ideological doctrine that emerged in the mid-19th century in the United States, defining the nation’s continental expansion as a historical, cultural, and divine mission. According to this belief, the United States was obligated to spread the values of “liberty,” “republicanism,” and “civilization” across the entirety of North America. The concept gained significant political traction especially during the 1840s, interpreting America’s westward expansion not merely as a strategic or economic preference, but as the nation’s divinely ordained destiny.
The doctrine provided the ideological foundation for expansionist maneuvers such as the westward migration of settler populations, the forced displacement of Native American communities, the annexation of Texas, the division of the Oregon Territory, and the Mexican-American War (1846–1848). Thus, Manifest Destiny became a defining intellectual framework in shaping the territorial integrity of the United States and positioning the nation as a “continental power” in its foreign policy.
The American Civil War and the subsequent Reconstruction Era constitute a historical process that fundamentally transformed the political unity, social structure, and constitutional order of the United States. This period represents a transitional phase in which national unity was reestablished with the abolition of slavery, yet social equality was not fully realized for decades.
Following the war, the United States entered the Reconstruction era. The goals were to reintegrate the Southern states into the Union and facilitate the adjustment of millions of newly freed enslaved people to the new social order.
During this period, three fundamental constitutional amendments were adopted:
Although the federal government provided freed African Americans with support in education, housing, and employment, white Democratic groups in the South, known as "Redeemers," used organizations such as the Ku Klux Klan to perpetrate violence against Black citizens.
Although the Enforcement Acts enacted during President Ulysses S. Grant's administration provided temporary protection, declining interest from Northern public opinion led to the withdrawal of federal troops from the South in 1877. With this date, the Reconstruction era came to an end; while legal equality had been achieved, social equality and racial justice remained elusive for decades.
The period between 1870 and 1917 in the United States marked the nation’s transformation from an agrarian economy to an industrial power, alongside the rise of social reform movements.
Following the Civil War, the country rapidly industrialized. Railroads, steel, oil, and electricity sectors formed the foundation of economic growth. Andrew Carnegie established a modern production system through vertical integration in the steel industry; John D. Rockefeller achieved a monopoly in the oil sector through the Standard Oil Company, acquiring unprecedented power within the American economy. In finance, J. P. Morgan consolidated the railroad, steel, and electricity industries through banking and investment capital. Henry Ford initiated mass production in the automotive industry, ushering in a new era in industrial manufacturing. These developments transformed the United States into a global industrial center within a short period.
The surge in industrial production spurred a search for new markets and raw materials. As a result of the Spanish-American War of 1898, the United States acquired the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam, and established economic and political influence over Cuba. During the same period, Hawaii was formally annexed. In these years, the United States became a global power not only economically, but also militarily and diplomatically.
As industrial monopolies expanded, income inequality increased, while the working class and labor movements gained strength. Mechanization in agriculture led to overproduction and rural distress, accelerating urbanization. These issues gave rise to the Progressive Era reforms at the beginning of the 20th century. Journalists known as "Muckrakers" criticized monopolies and corruption; the government strengthened economic oversight through antitrust laws. During the same period, significant progress was made in direct elections, women's suffrage, environmental protection, and public health.
The United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, declaring war on Germany. Initially neutral, the country decided to join the war following German submarine attacks on American merchant ships and the Zimmermann Telegram crisis. President Woodrow Wilson framed the war as a struggle "to make the world safe for democracy." Approximately 4 million American soldiers were mobilized, and 116,000 lost their lives. America’s contribution helped accelerate the Allies’ victory.
After the war, Wilson proposed the creation of the League of Nations during the negotiations of the Treaty of Versailles, but the U.S. Congress refused to ratify the treaty, prompting America to return to a policy of isolationism. The 1920s were marked by economic growth, rising consumption, and cultural vibrancy; the automobile, radio, and cinema became integral parts of daily life. However, the Wall Street Stock Market Crash of 1929 brought this era of prosperity to an end, plunging the nation into the Great Depression.
The Great Depression (1929–1939) left millions of Americans unemployed. President Franklin D. Roosevelt launched the New Deal program to revitalize the economy. These reforms strengthened public employment, social security, and financial oversight. By the end of the 1930s, despite neutrality laws aimed at keeping the United States out of foreign conflicts, the country began to take closer interest in developments in Europe.
When World War II (1939–1945) began, the United States remained neutral but supported the Allies through the Lend-Lease Act (1941). Following Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the U.S. entered the war. During the conflict, over 16 million American servicemen and women served; industrial production surged, and unemployment disappeared.
The U.S. military turned the tide of the war in Europe with the D-Day invasion of Normandy (1944); in the Pacific, the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki compelled Japan’s surrender. With the end of the war in 1945, the United States emerged as the world’s leading economic, military, and political power.
The Cold War was a prolonged period of ideological, political, economic, and technological competition between the United States and the Soviet Union following World War II, which did not escalate into direct military conflict. During this period, the world divided into two blocs under the influence of these two superpowers: the capitalist Western Bloc and the communist Eastern Bloc.
At the end of World War II, the United States emerged as a global power with overwhelming economic and military superiority. While Europe and Asia lay in ruins, the U.S. had expanded its industrial production, and the dollar had become the international reserve currency. During this time, the country abandoned its traditional isolationist policy and assumed an active leadership role in the international system.
Following the war, ideological differences between the United States and the Soviet Union led to a new global polarization. The United States represented democracy and a free-market economy, while the Soviet Union stood for a one-party socialist system. In 1947, the U.S. contributed to Europe’s reconstruction through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, and adopted the strategy of containment aimed at preventing the spread of communism. The establishment of NATO in 1949 solidified the United States’ leading role in the defense of Western Europe.
In Asia, the United States expanded its global military presence through developments such as the reconstruction of Japan, the Korean War (1950–1953), and the Vietnam War (1955–1975). During the same years, events like the space race, the arms race, and the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) brought the two superpowers to the brink of nuclear war.
Domestically, fear of communism gave rise to anti-communist movements known as the McCarthy Era. At the same time, the Civil Rights Movement, led by figures such as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., brought the struggle for racial equality and freedom to the forefront.
By the late 1980s, the weakening of the Soviet Union, the collapse of regimes in Eastern Europe, and the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 paved the way for the end of the Cold War. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States emerged as the world’s sole superpower in military, economic, and diplomatic terms.
Following the Cold War, the United States became the world’s sole superpower after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. During the 1990s, the Gulf War (1991) demonstrated America’s military superiority. During the same period, NATO expanded, and the United States played a decisive role in addressing instability in Europe and the Balkans.
Economically, the 1990s were a period marked by accelerated globalization driven by the rise of information technology and the internet. However, this era gave way to a new security-focused phase following the September 11, 2001 attacks. The September 11, 2001 Attacks triggered profound changes in U.S. domestic and foreign policy. As a result of Al-Qaeda’s attacks, 2,977 people lost their lives. President George W. Bush declared a “War on Terror.” In this context, the United States launched military interventions in Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2003). Although Saddam Hussein’s regime in Iraq was overthrown, the country was plunged into prolonged internal conflict, and regional instability increased with the rise of organizations such as ISIS.
Another significant development during this period was the global economic crisis and increasing polarization in domestic politics. The 2008 Global Financial Crisis inflicted the most severe blow to the U.S. economy since the Great Depression. The collapse of the housing market and risky lending practices within the financial system affected millions of people. The federal government’s rescue programs restructured the economy. During this time, Barack Obama (2009–2017) emerged as a prominent figure through policies promoting economic recovery, healthcare reform, and multilateral diplomacy. However, ideological polarization between the Republican and Democratic parties became more pronounced.
In the 2016 elections, Donald Trump was elected president on the slogan “America First.” His administration infused U.S. foreign policy with a nationalist and protectionist orientation through trade wars, restrictive immigration policies, and withdrawals from international agreements. The Trump era saw the weakening of NATO relations and increased tensions in economic competition with China.
The United States of America is a federal state located in the central and southern regions of North America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the west, Canada to the north, and Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska extends along the northwestern edge of Canada toward the Bering Sea and is separated from Russia’s Chukotka Peninsula by the Bering Strait. Hawaii is a volcanic archipelago situated in the central Pacific Ocean. In addition, various overseas territories—including Puerto Rico, Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands—are part of the United States’ political domain. With a total area exceeding 9.8 million square kilometers, the United States is one of the largest countries in the world and holds a strategically significant position on a continental scale.
The United States possesses a geologically diverse topography, which is defined by extensive physical regions.
The Cordillera mountain system in the west forms the country’s most prominent elevations. The Rocky Mountains, stretching from New Mexico to Canada, constitute one of the broadest mountain ranges on the continent. The Sierra Nevada, located along the border of California and Nevada, is among the highest mountain ranges in the country fed by snowmelt; here, Mount Whitney reaches 4,421 meters, making it the highest point in the continental interior. The Cascade Range in the Pacific Northwest includes active volcanoes such as Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Hood. Rising in Alaska, Denali stands at 6,190 meters, making it the highest peak in North America. The Appalachian Mountains, extending through eastern America, exhibit an older and more eroded morphology, with subregions such as the Blue Ridge and the Great Smoky Mountains.
The vast plains formed by the Mississippi River Basin constitute a critically important economic region within the interior of the country. The Great Plains, stretching from North Dakota to Texas, play a dominant role particularly in grain production. The Central Valley in California is one of the most significant agricultural production centers in the U.S. economy due to its output of fruits, vegetables, and nuts. Other valleys, such as the Willamette Valley (Oregon) and the Rio Grande Valley (Texas–New Mexico), are also important agricultural areas on a regional scale.
The Mississippi River is one of the longest and most important rivers in the United States, extending from Minnesota to the Gulf of Mexico. Together with its major tributaries, the Missouri and Ohio Rivers, it forms a vast network crucial for inland transportation and ecological systems. The Colorado River is critically important for irrigation and hydroelectric power in the southwestern states; it is the primary river responsible for carving the Grand Canyon. The Great Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario), located along the northern border of the country, constitute the largest freshwater lake system in the world by volume. Other prominent hydrographic features include the Columbia, Hudson, Potomac, Tennessee, Rio Grande, and Yukon Rivers.
The United States encompasses a wide range of climate types, stretching from tropical to polar, due to its vast land area. The eastern coasts are generally influenced by a humid subtropical climate; Florida and the Gulf Coast region are hot and highly humid. A continental climate dominates in New England and the Midwest, with harsh winters. The western coasts exhibit oceanic and Mediterranean climate characteristics; the coasts of California are particularly dry and mild in summer. The southwestern states (Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico) are known for their extensive desert areas. Alaska has a subarctic and polar climate, while Hawaii lies within the tropical climate zone. This climatic diversity enables a broad range of vegetation types, from boreal forests to deciduous forests, grasslands to maquis-like plant communities, and tropical rainforests.
The country is rich in natural resources, including coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium, nickel, copper, gold, and timber. The Appalachian region is notable for its coal reserves; Texas and Alaska are major producers of oil and natural gas; Minnesota and Michigan are known for their iron ore deposits. In recent years, increased production of shale gas and tight oil has strengthened U.S. energy independence and boosted natural gas exports. Additionally, the Midwest agricultural regions provide a strategic position in terms of food and biological raw materials.
The U.S. energy infrastructure is based on a multi-layered system of production and distribution. Electricity generation comes from petroleum, natural gas, coal, nuclear power, and an increasingly significant capacity from wind and solar energy. Texas, Iowa, and Oklahoma are leading states in wind energy; California, Nevada, and Arizona lead in solar energy. Across the country, thousands of kilometers of pipelines transport oil and natural gas.
The backbone of the transportation network is the Interstate Highway System; I-5, I-10, I-40, I-70, and I-95 are among the most heavily used routes. The United States’ railway infrastructure plays a critical role in freight transportation, with companies such as Union Pacific and BNSF handling major shipments. Maritime transport is supported by high-capacity hubs including the New York–New Jersey Port, the Los Angeles–Long Beach Port, and the Port of Houston. Air transport operates through an extensive network centered on some of the world’s busiest airports, including Atlanta, Chicago O’Hare, Los Angeles, and Dallas–Fort Worth.
The United States economy has long held the position of the world’s largest mixed economy. This structure is underpinned by a robust consumer market, an innovative private sector, high technological capacity, and a decisive role within the global financial system. The U.S. Dollar maintains its central weight in international trade and reserve currency structures, while the country’s economic and political influence sets standards in global markets.
The economic structure is supported not only by technological innovation but also by a highly productive labor force, abundant natural resources, and advanced capital markets. However, high public debt, income inequality, and the economic impacts of climate change are considered key future risks.
Projected economic indicators for 2025:
• GDP: ~$30 trillion USD
• Real Growth: ∼2.7%
• GDP per Capita: ∼$89,105
• Inflation: ∼3.3%
• Unemployment: ∼3.8%
• Exports: ∼$2.7 trillion
• Imports: ∼$4.0 trillion
The geographic distribution of economic output is concentrated in several states. California’s technology and media-driven economy alone exceeds the total output value of many countries. Texas stands out for its energy and industrial production, New York for its role as a financial hub, Florida for its emphasis on trade and tourism, and Illinois for its logistics and industrial capacity.
The largest private-sector employers by employment are Walmart, Amazon, UnitedHealth Group, Home Depot, and Kroger. The federal government, with approximately three million civilian employees, is the country’s single largest employer.
U.S. agriculture possesses one of the world’s most advanced mechanized production systems in terms of efficiency. Extensive arable land, advanced automation, genetic breeding techniques, and efficient supply chains integrate the sector both into the domestic market and the global food system. The United States is the world leader in corn and soybean production, and these crops hold strategic importance for biofuels, animal feed, and industrial raw materials. The country also has a robust production infrastructure for beef and dairy products.
The Corn Belt, located in the Midwest, is the global leader in corn and soybean production. These crops are of strategic importance not only for the food industry but also for biofuel production, the animal feed sector, and various industrial applications.
The livestock sector features a large-scale, integrated structure encompassing beef, dairy, poultry, and pork production. Modern livestock operations in the United States operate through an integrated production infrastructure that combines feed supply chains, cold storage, logistics, and processing facilities. This system enables the country to meet high domestic demand while establishing itself as a major supplier in international markets.
The agricultural sector is not limited to the production of primary goods. Its connections with biotechnology, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and energy sectors integrate agriculture into a broad industrial ecosystem of the national economy. Corn-based ethanol holds a share in the national energy portfolio and constitutes a component of renewable energy policies. Soy and other plant-based raw materials are used in the production of bioplastics, fatty acid derivatives, feed additives, and chemical intermediates.
Although the industrial sector constitutes a smaller share of the economy, its strategic importance is extremely high. The United States maintains global competitiveness in advanced technology products, aerospace and defense systems, semiconductor manufacturing, medical technologies, and the automotive industry.
While the Detroit-based automotive industry retains its traditional weight, emerging growth areas are signaled by next-generation electric vehicle technologies and battery production capacity. In the aerospace and space sector, Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and new-generation space companies account for a significant portion of high-value-added product exports.
The energy industry is the strategic backbone of the United States. The shale gas revolution has transformed the country into one of the world’s largest energy producers by significantly increasing both natural gas production and oil extraction. The nation’s refinery system, pipeline networks, and geological storage capacity provide a unique infrastructure critical to economic security.
The liquefied natural gas (LNG) sector is among the fastest-growing export categories in recent years. Facilities such as Sabine Pass, Corpus Christi, Freeport, and Cameron LNG have positioned the United States as the global leader in LNG supply. This capacity is expected to continue expanding with the commissioning of new projects.
The services sector is the backbone of the U.S. economy, accounting for approximately 80% of GDP. Key components of this sector include finance, insurance, real estate, healthcare services, professional consulting, education, information technology, and creativity-based services.
The technology sector, driven by an innovation ecosystem led by Silicon Valley, is one of the primary engines of growth. Artificial intelligence, software, internet services, and digital infrastructure exhibit a pace of innovation that directly influences the rest of the world.
The financial system influences both the domestic U.S. market and the global economy through New York-based global markets. Wall Street serves as a decisive hub in global capital flows, characterized by its diversity of financial products, high capital mobility, and extensive international banking capacity.
The United States occupies a dual position in global trade: as a massive import market and as a leading exporter of high-technology products. The trade deficit has a structural character; the high-consumption domestic market consistently leads to a persistent surplus of imports over exports.
Major trading partners include Mexico and Canada, which serve as complementary links in the North American supply chain. Trade relations with China hold strategic importance due to both their high volume and competition in technology and production. Japan and Germany maintain strong trade ties, particularly in the areas of automobiles, machinery, electronics, and high-engineering products.
Key export categories include aircraft, advanced machinery and engines, electronic products, petroleum products, and financial and technical services. Major import categories consist of motor vehicles, electronics, communication devices, petroleum, chemical products, and textiles.
The United States is the world's largest recipient of global foreign direct investment. This is underpinned by legal predictability, transparent regulations, a vast consumer market, advanced financial infrastructure, and a high-tech innovation environment. These factors make the U.S. an attractive hub for both production and research and development activities.
Foreign investors are particularly concentrated in the technology, energy, manufacturing, logistics, and real estate sectors. The government balances economic openness with security needs by reviewing investments in critical infrastructure related to national security. Within this framework, the country continues to attract innovative startups and international corporate headquarters.
The United States is the third most populous country in the world and a nation characterized by high levels of ethnic and cultural diversity. The country’s demographic structure is dynamic, shaped by continuous migration flows and high levels of internal mobility. Since the 1960s, the U.S. has undergone significant demographic transformation, with population growth largely driven by immigration.
The United States has a highly urbanized structure; more than four-fifths of its population lives in metropolitan areas. The country's population center continues to shift steadily southward and westward.
Largest Cities and Metropolitan Areas (Estimated Population):
New York stands out as the nation's center of finance, commerce, and culture, while Los Angeles leads the West Coast in economic and entertainment sectors. Texas, particularly the regions around Houston and Dallas, is notable for its rapid population growth.
The United States has a complex ethnic and racial structure often described by the metaphors of the "melting pot" and the "salad bowl." Immigration continues to drive the ongoing transformation of this structure.
Ethnic and Racial Distribution (2023 Estimated Data)
The Hispanic population is the fastest-growing minority group in the country, with a concentration particularly in states such as California, Texas, and Florida. The Asian population has also experienced significant growth, making substantial contributions especially to the technology and service sectors.
The United States is a secular state in which freedom of religion is constitutionally guaranteed. Although the country is predominantly Christian, the proportion of nonreligious individuals and adherents of other faiths is increasing.
Religious Distribution (2023 Estimated Data):
Protestantism continues to be the largest religious group historically, while Catholicism and the non-religious population represent significant demographic forces.
The United States has a developed education system and a high literacy rate, although educational attainment varies among states and racial/ethnic groups.
Educational Attainment (Population Aged 25 and Over):
The country is home to numerous prestigious universities (Ivy League, major research universities) that are global leaders in research and innovation.
Migration is the primary driving force behind the United States' demographic growth and cultural diversity. The country hosts the largest immigrant population in the world.
The immigrant population plays a critical role in the labor market and helps mitigate the effects of demographic aging. However, debates over immigration policies and legal status remain consistently central to the nation’s political and social agenda.
The United States encompasses a vast geography and a multilayered social structure. This diversity, shaped significantly by its immigrant population, manifests in languages, traditions, cuisine, music, and lifestyles. Every region maintains its own cultural identity—from the multicultural neighborhoods of New York to the Creole culture of Louisiana, from Latin influences in California to the folk heritage of Appalachia. American cuisine is a reflection of this diversity, creating a both popular and experimental gastronomic landscape through the fusion of regional dishes, ethnic culinary traditions, and fast-food culture.
The cultural heritage of the United States spans a broad spectrum, encompassing modern urban landscapes, traces of Indigenous peoples, and historic structures. The country possesses comprehensive institutions and legal frameworks dedicated to the preservation of its national heritage.
The United States is home to numerous natural and cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites. National parks such as the Grand Canyon, Yellowstone, and Yosemite symbolize the nation’s natural heritage. In contrast, sites like Independence Hall represent key cultural landmarks reflecting the country’s political and historical development.
The nation’s history is rich with colonial-era buildings, archaeological areas associated with Native American populations, and remnants of the Civil War. Thousands of structures and sites have been preserved under the National Historic Preservation Act.
The United States hosts some of the most influential museums worldwide. The Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., plays a leading role in preserving and presenting cultural heritage as the world’s largest museum and research complex. Institutions such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the Art Institute of Chicago house some of the most significant masterpieces in the history of art.
The United States is among the most preferred countries globally for tourism. In 2024, the country welcomed approximately 72 million international visitors and boasts a massive tourism economy supported by strong domestic travel activity. The sector generates billions of dollars in value and provides employment for millions of people through accommodation, transportation, entertainment, and cultural services.
A significant portion of visitors come from countries such as Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Germany, France, Japan, and South Korea. The tourist profile is highly diverse; urban tourism, nature and adventure experiences, amusement parks, cultural tours, and business travel are key motivators.
Tourism is a major supporting element of the U.S. economy. As an essential component of the service sector, it consistently contributes to economic growth. Accommodation and entertainment expenditures in major cities, and direct tourism-driven economic activities in states such as Florida and Nevada, are particularly prominent.
The United States is a country that regularly develops policies in areas such as visas, travel security, preservation of national parks, and international promotional campaigns. Strategies implemented at both federal and state levels prioritize sustainable tourism and the protection of cultural heritage.
American cities themselves serve as major tourist destinations, with each region developing its own distinct subculture. New York City stands out as a global cultural capital, renowned for the Statue of Liberty, Times Square, Central Park, and its vast museum collections. Los Angeles attracts attention as the heart of Hollywood, with its famous Pacific coast beaches and contemporary entertainment culture. Washington, D.C., is one of the nation’s most important centers for historical tourism, thanks to its political history and extensive museum collections. Chicago is a significant draw due to its architecture, vibrant music scene, and lakeside location. San Francisco offers a blend of modern and nostalgic elements through the Golden Gate Bridge, Alcatraz Island, and historic streetcars, while New Orleans is a major attraction for domestic tourism, celebrated for its French colonial architecture and colorful festivals.
The United States boasts extensive nature tourism through hundreds of national parks and protected areas. The Grand Canyon is one of the most impressive examples, renowned for its massive scale and geological strata. Yellowstone, the world’s first national park, holds historical significance for its geysers and abundant wildlife. Yosemite serves as a hub for nature enthusiasts and outdoor adventurers, famed for its steep granite cliffs, towering sequoia trees, and majestic waterfalls. The Niagara Falls, with their striking location along the U.S.-Canada border, attract millions of visitors annually.
The country features numerous thematic tourism regions catering to diverse interests. Orlando, Florida, is the epicenter of family tourism, dominated by massive theme parks. Las Vegas offers a unique experience in the heart of the desert, centered on gambling, entertainment, and vibrant nightlife. Hawaii is a premier destination for relaxation-focused travel, celebrated for its tropical climate, volcanic landscapes, and surf culture. In addition, the United States’ extensive highway network and iconic routes such as Route 66 support the “road trip” culture, providing visitors with opportunities to explore the country by car and experience the cultural diversity of its various regions.
In the first quarter of the 21st century, United States (U.S.) foreign policy has been shaped around a complex and multidimensional struggle for power, redefined by the concept of strategic competition. The post-Cold War era’s limited cooperation and economically driven relationships have given way, particularly since the late 2010s, to a long-term and comprehensive competitive environment with China and Russia. This shift has led the U.S. to position China as a “pacing challenge” in its national security and defense strategies, and Russia as a deepening geopolitical adversary in the context of the war in Ukraine and nuclear risks.
During the early years of the 21st century, U.S.-China relations progressed within a framework of “mutual economic interdependence” and limited cooperation. However, since the late 2010s, they have transformed into a long-term, multidimensional struggle for power, defined by the concept of “strategic competition.” In U.S. national security and defense strategies, China is currently identified as the “pacing challenge”—the central reference point for U.S. defense planning.
The core dimensions of this competition are concentrated in the fields of economics, technology, military power balance, and ideological legitimacy. While the U.S. seeks to constrain China’s military activities in the East and South China Seas, its pressure on Taiwan, and its expanding global influence through the Belt and Road Initiative, it is simultaneously strengthening alliance networks with regional partners—including Japan, South Korea, Australia, the Philippines, and India—under the framework of its Indo-Pacific strategy.
Relations have hardened economically through trade wars, technology restrictions (semiconductors, 5G, artificial intelligence), and mutual sanctions, while simultaneously maintaining a structure open to limited, issue-specific cooperation on matters such as climate change, global health, and financial stability. The U.S. administration characterizes China in official documents as simultaneously a “competitor” and a “major power requiring cooperation,” thereby shaping policy into a dual framework aimed at preventing conflict while managing competition.
On the military level, the United States, since the 2020s, has adopted an integrated deterrence approach, preparing particularly for potential crises around the Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea. The network of bases in the Indo-Pacific, joint military exercises, and new defense partnerships are viewed as components of a long-term strategy designed to balance China’s regional expansion.
U.S.-Russia relations today are shaped by the war in Ukraine, nuclear weapons, and great-power competition. U.S.-Russia relations are unfolding against a backdrop of deepening geopolitical antagonism, mutual sanctions, nuclear deterrence, and Russia’s invasion of Ukraine.
During the Obama administration (2009–2016), Washington sought to improve relations with Moscow in its early years through a “reset” initiative; under this framework, the New START treaty, which limited strategic nuclear weapons, was signed, and limited cooperation was attempted on certain regional issues. However, Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014, its support for separatist forces in eastern Ukraine, and its close military alliance with the Assad regime during the Syrian civil war triggered a sharp deterioration in relations; in response, the United States and the European Union imposed comprehensive economic sanctions and deterrent measures in the security domain.
During Trump’s first term (2017–2021), a striking duality emerged in bilateral relations. On one hand, there was a more moderate tone at the presidential level, with frequent leader-level phone calls and summit diplomacy; on the other hand, U.S. institutions, citing allegations of Russian interference in the 2016 elections and cyberattacks, maintained a hardline stance against Moscow.
During the Biden administration (2021–2024), relations reached their lowest point since the end of the Cold War following Russia’s large-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022. The United States provided comprehensive military and financial support to Ukraine, imposed severe sanctions on Russian banks and major corporations, froze Russian Central Bank assets, and strengthened NATO’s eastern flank. Russia, in turn, accused the United States of being an indirect party to the conflict; it withdrew from the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), vetoed initiatives aimed at limiting the deployment of nuclear weapons in space, and, as of 2024, heightened perceptions of nuclear risk through its strategic arsenal of thousands of warheads.
Trump’s second term in 2024 signals a significant shift in U.S. policy. The administration has temporarily halted support for Ukraine, proposed a 30-day ceasefire and negotiation plan for the conflict, and initiated a diplomatic “reset” with Russia. Disagreements between Washington and Europe over Ukraine and Russia policy have become more pronounced; America’s relaxation of certain sanction mechanisms and its renewed engagement with Moscow have ushered in a new, yet uncertain, phase in international relations.
The core pillars of U.S. Middle East policy can be summarized as: ensuring Israel’s security, safeguarding energy supplies and maritime routes, limiting Iran’s influence and nuclear program, combating radical organizations, and preserving regional alliance networks. Over the past fifteen years, however, this policy has simultaneously pursued a strategic “military burden reduction” from the region and a global pivot toward the Asia-Pacific, while also grappling with intense crises centered on Iran, the Israel-Palestine conflict, and Gulf power dynamics.
The Obama Era (2009–2017) began by managing the legacy of the Iraq occupation under George W. Bush and claiming to repair relations with the “Muslim world.” Key characteristics of this period included the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq, a partial shift in focus toward Afghanistan, cautious support during the Arab Spring, and a NATO-led intervention in Libya. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), signed with Iran in 2015, became a symbol of Obama’s emphasis on diplomacy and multilateralism in the Middle East; however, despite his declaration of a “red line” regarding Syria’s civil war, the avoidance of large-scale military intervention contributed to a regional perception of the United States as a hesitant and inconsistent actor. While the U.S. maintained security cooperation with Israel, periodic open tensions arose over settlement policies and the Palestinian issue.
Trump’s First Term (2017–2021) firmly aligned with a distinctly Iran-focused “maximum pressure” strategy and a new alliance architecture centered on Israel. The U.S. withdrew from the JCPOA and imposed severe economic sanctions on Iran—a policy that evolved into a doctrine aimed at rolling back Tehran’s regional influence but simultaneously heightened tensions in the Gulf and Iraq. During the same period, the U.S. recognition of Jerusalem as Israel’s capital and its acknowledgment of Israeli sovereignty over the Golan Heights represented a clear departure from previous American positions on the Palestinian issue. Parallel to these moves, the Abraham Accords, which normalized relations between Israel and the UAE, Bahrain, Morocco, and Sudan, were presented by Washington as a major diplomatic achievement; however, this process was criticized for sidelining the Palestinian cause and promoting a regional order based on an “anti-Iran axis.”
The Biden era (2021–2025) initially adopted a framework that relegated the Middle East to a relatively secondary priority, refocusing global strategic attention on competition with China and Russia. Although Washington engaged in indirect negotiations aimed at reviving the nuclear deal with Iran, no tangible results were achieved; meanwhile, the majority of sanctions against Iran remained in force. The Israel–Hamas/Gaza war, which began after October 7, 2023, once again deeply re-engaged the Biden administration in the region: while the United States provided comprehensive military and diplomatic support to Israel, it was also compelled to exert pressure for ceasefires, prisoner exchanges, and humanitarian aid corridors in response to rising civilian casualties and a deepening humanitarian crisis. At the same time, Houthi attacks in the Red Sea, activities of Iran-linked groups across the region, and tensions along the Iraq–Syria border prompted the United States to increase its naval and base deployments.
Turkey–United States relations are shaped on the foundation of alliance within the NATO framework, but have exhibited a volatile trajectory in recent years due to various structural differences and diverging security priorities. During the Cold War, cooperation between the two countries developed within a framework based on a shared perception of threat; in the current era, relations have evolved into a structure characterized by issue-based cooperation alongside divergent regional policies. Turkey’s adoption of a multifaceted foreign policy—maintaining engagement with regional actors such as Russia and Iran, and showing interest in international platforms like BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization—has become a key factor influencing the scope of bilateral relations.
Defense and security issues are central elements of bilateral relations. Turkey’s procurement of the S-400 air defense system from Russia significantly affected its position in the F-35 program and led to a redefinition of technical cooperation in the defense sector. The United States’ cooperation with the YPG/SDF in Syria remains on the agenda as a matter directly linked to Turkey’s security concerns. Additionally, demands for the extradition of Fethullah Gülen, legal proceedings related to the 2016 coup attempt, the Halkbank case, and debates over democracy and human rights constitute other key issues addressed at the political and diplomatic levels.
Bilateral relations have fluctuated over time in accordance with the foreign policy priorities of successive administrations. The Pastor Andrew Brunson crisis, operations in Syria, economic sanctions, and customs tariffs have been prominent issues in earlier periods. In the 2020s, NATO internal coordination, the war in Ukraine, and alliance expansion processes have created an environment conducive to intensified diplomatic engagement between the two countries. Sweden’s NATO membership and the F-16 supply process are among the principal issues negotiated during this period.
In the current period, security, trade, and migration have emerged as key pillars of U.S. policy toward Latin America. Drug cartels and certain criminal networks have been designated as “foreign terrorist organizations,” prompting an enhancement of military and surveillance capacity along the Mexican border, deployment of naval assets in the Caribbean and off the coast of Venezuela, and the conduct of operations targeting cartel activities. This security-centered approach has elicited varied responses, shaped by cooperation with regional countries and the resulting objections.
In commercial relations, the United States applies varying tariffs to Latin American countries; these practices affect trade flows and have prompted some nations to seek alternative economic partnerships. The balance between free trade agreements and protectionist measures lies at the heart of regional trade debates.
Migration policies are shaped by the narrowing of temporary protection statuses, the acceleration of deportation procedures, and readmission agreements negotiated with regional countries. These measures directly impact both migration management and bilateral relations. Cuts to development and humanitarian aid programs have reduced the scope of social and governance initiatives, particularly in Central America and the Caribbean. The level of U.S. engagement with regional countries varies depending on factors such as security, migration, and political alignment.
The United States’ current African policy is shaped around great power competition, economic and trade relations, security cooperation, and the realignment of development instruments. Africa is regarded as a strategic region for the United States due to its rapid population growth, expanding domestic markets, and critical mineral reserves. At the same time, the growing influence of China, Russia, and regional actors has turned the continent into one of the key arenas of international competition.
In terms of security, the United States operates in areas such as counterterrorism, supporting stability, and contributing to regional security initiatives. AFRICOM’s operations and various security partnerships with African nations constitute the core component of the United States’ security approach in Africa. Increasing instability and conflict in regions such as the Sahel and East Africa necessitate the continuity of security policies. However, the reduction of certain aid and stability programs has led to a weakening of the integrated approach linking security and development.
In the context of geopolitics and power competition, the United States faces the expanding influence of China in Africa’s trade, investment, infrastructure, and mining sectors. The scale and diversity of China’s economic engagements with the continent have prompted the United States to adopt a more competitive stance in its Africa policy. Russia is also enhancing its influence in certain African countries through security cooperation, military presence, and natural resource agreements. In this framework, the United States emphasizes Africa’s growing importance in global power dynamics and positions its relations with the continent accordingly within this competitive environment.
In the field of economics and trade, tariff policies, the future of the AGOA regime, and the creation of an economic framework compatible with the African Continental Free Trade Area are key topics of discussion. General and country-specific tariffs imposed by the United States have generated commercial uncertainty in certain sectors. Conversely, the renewal of AGOA and the establishment of special trade arrangements for critical minerals aim to institutionalize the growing economic ties between the United States and the continent. Critical minerals are particularly significant; the United States is developing new partnership models with African countries to diversify its supply chains and reduce dependence on China for specific minerals.
In the areas of development, governance, and soft power, the United States has adopted a more limited framework compared to previous periods. A significant portion of development funding and technical assistance programs has been reduced; health, social support, and institutional capacity-building programs have been restructured. While low-cost programs such as PEPFAR and the Peace Corps continue, larger-scale development projects have been gradually scaled back. This trend has emerged as a development that constrains the effectiveness of the United States’ traditional soft power instruments in Africa.
The United States is one of the nations with the largest defense budget, the most advanced technological infrastructure, and a widespread military presence deployed globally. The U.S. Armed Forces consist of five main components: the Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Space Force, and play a decisive role within NATO’s collective defense structure. The country’s military capacity is underpinned by nuclear deterrence, global logistical capability, advanced technology-based defense systems, an extensive network of allies, and a network of bases located across various regions of the world, enabling multi-layered power projection. This framework has established the United States as a central actor in both regional and global security architectures.
According to various global military indices, the United States maintains its position as the world’s most powerful military force. This military capacity is fundamentally underpinned by the nation’s substantial financial resources and vast human resources. The country’s defense expenditures and personnel numbers are key factors supporting this global leadership.
The chain of command begins with the President of the United States (Commander-in-Chief) and extends directly to the Secretary of Defense (SecDef). The Secretary of Defense transmits orders directly to the commanders of the Unified Combatant Commands. This command structure consists of eleven combatant commands, organized according to both geographic and functional areas of responsibility.
The Unified Combatant Commands are:
These commands exercise command and control over all military forces (Army, Navy, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Space Force) operating within their respective geographic areas or functional domains.
The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) is the highest-ranking military officer in the country and serves as the principal military advisor to the President and the Secretary of Defense; however, he does not possess direct operational command authority over combatant forces.
The administrative chain of command, on the other hand, encompasses responsibilities related to the organization, training, and equipping of the armed forces. This chain begins with the Secretary of Defense and extends through the civilian Secretaries of the Military Departments (e.g., Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the Air Force), continuing down to the respective Service Chiefs responsible for the readiness and sustainment of each service (e.g., Chief of Staff of the Army). The Service Chiefs, together with the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, constitute the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS), the principal military advisory body of the United States of America.
United States Army is the oldest and largest branch of the United States Armed Forces, responsible for land-based military operations. Its origins trace back to the Continental Army, established on June 14, 1775, to fight in the American Revolutionary War.
The primary mission of the Army is to win the nation’s wars by providing rapid and sustained land dominance across the full spectrum of military operations in support of combatant commanders. This mission encompasses preserving peace and security, defending the United States, its territories, and overseas interests, supporting national policies, and achieving national objectives.
The history of the United States Army is deeply intertwined with that of the nation itself. Its major conflicts and periods include:
The Army employs a variety of modern equipment to achieve land dominance.
United States Navy is the branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for naval warfare operations. Its mission is to ensure freedom of navigation on the seas, protect American interests, and conduct deterrence and power projection via maritime means.
The Navy’s mission is to be prepared to fight and win wars, deter aggression, and maintain peace at sea through forward-deployed operations. This includes keeping sea lanes open, cooperating with allies, and serving as the first responder during crises.
The Navy is administered by the Ministry of the Navy within the Ministry of Defense. The command structure includes the Secretary of the Navy and the Chief of Naval Operations, the highest-ranking naval officer. Operational forces are divided into numbered fleets worldwide:
The United States Navy is the successor to the Continental Navy, established on October 13, 1775. Throughout its history, it has operated across a broad spectrum of missions, from combating piracy to participating in global wars. The Pacific Theater of World War II stands as one of the most significant periods demonstrating the navy’s strength and the strategic importance of aircraft carriers. During the Cold War, it served as a critical element of global balance against the Soviet Navy.
The United States Navy is the largest and most capable navy in the world.
United States Air Force is the branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for air and space operations. It became an independent service on September 18, 1947, separating from the Army.
The mission of the Air Force is to fly, fight, and win in air, space, and cyberspace to protect, deter, and defend America’s interests. This includes global air superiority, global access, precision engagement, and space operations.
The Air Force is administered by the Department of the Air Force, and its highest-ranking officer is the Chief of Staff of the Air Force. Operationally, it is organized into Major Commands focused on specific missions:
Its origins trace back to 1907, when an aviation section was established as part of the U.S. Army Signal Corps. During World War II, it played a major role as the U.S. Army Air Forces, conducting strategic bombing missions in Europe and the Pacific. During the Cold War, it became the cornerstone of nuclear deterrence and also participated in humanitarian operations such as the Berlin Airlift.
It is the world's most technologically advanced air force.
United States Marine Corps is the amphibious, expeditionary, and rapid-response force of the United States. Although subordinate to the Department of the Navy, it is represented as a separate service branch within the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
The primary mission of the Marine Corps is to conduct operations along coastal regions after arriving by sea, and to seize or defend forward naval bases. Known for their integrated structure that unifies air, land, and logistics elements under a single command, they are often referred to as "the President's 911 force."
Established on November 10, 1775, in Philadelphia, the Marine Corps has participated in every major conflict involving the United States. They gained particular renown for their bravery in pivotal Pacific island battles such as the Battle of Belleau Wood during World War I, and the Battles of Iwo Jima and Guadalcanal during World War II.
Marines undergo a demanding 13-week Recruit Training program at one of two recruit training centers: Parris Island, South Carolina, or San Diego, California. This training is known for pushing both physical and mental endurance to their limits.
The Marine Corps employs a variety of land, air, and amphibious vehicles tailored to their operational requirements.
United States Space Force is the newest branch of the U.S. Armed Forces, established on December 20, 2019. Its mission is to protect U.S. interests in space and conduct military operations in the space domain.
The Space Force’s mission is to organize, train, and equip forces to protect U.S. and allied interests, deter threats in space, and provide space capabilities. This includes the management and protection of GPS satellites, military communications satellites, and missile warning systems.
It is subordinate to the Department of the Air Force, and its highest-ranking officer is the Chief of Space Operations. Its personnel are known as "Guardians." Its structure consists of commands focused exclusively on space operations.
Although its establishment is recent, its origins trace back to the Air Force Space Command (AFSPC), which had managed military space programs since the beginning of the Cold War. The increasing militarization of space necessitated the creation of a separate service branch.
The Space Force is a highly technical and specialized force. Its personnel consist largely of space systems operators, engineers, and intelligence analysts. Its key technologies include the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite constellation, Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) communications satellites, and the Space-Based Infrared System (SBIRS) missile warning satellites.
United States Coast Guard is a military service responsible for enforcing U.S. maritime laws, conducting search and rescue operations, and ensuring national security. In peacetime, it operates under the Department of Homeland Security, but during wartime, it may be transferred to the command of the U.S. Navy.
The Coast Guard carries out eleven statutory missions:
The Coast Guard is divided into two main operational regions: Atlantic and Pacific. Its headquarters is located in Washington, D.C.
Its origins trace back to the Revenue Cutter Service, established in 1790 by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, making it one of the United States' oldest maritime services. Throughout its history, it has performed duties including combating smuggling, search and rescue, and wartime port security.
The Coast Guard operates a variety of vessels (cutters) and aircraft to carry out its missions.
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History
Early Settlements and Prehistoric Period
Colonial Period (1600–1763)
European Explorations and Early Settlements
Establishment of English Colonies
The Status of Indigenous Peoples and the African Slave Trade
Power and Exploitation Struggles in North America
The War of Independence and the American Revolution (1775–1783)
Causes and Outbreak of the War
Expansion Era (1783–1857)
Manifest Destiny
The Civil War and Reconstruction (1857–1877)
Reconstruction Era (1865–1877)
Industrialization and the Progressive Era (1870–1917)
Industrialization Era (1870–1900)
American Imperialism and Expansion (1890–1900)
The Progressive Era (1900–1917)
The World Wars Era (1917–1945)
The Cold War Era
The Post-Cold War Era and the Present
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Foreign Policy and Security
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United States Army
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United States Navy
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United States Air Force
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United States Marine Corps
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United States Space Force
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Personnel and Technology
United States Coast Guard
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